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'''Neuroscience''' is the [[scientific]] [[study]] of the [[nervous system]]. [[Traditionally]], neuroscience has been seen as a branch of [[biology]]. Nevertheless, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that involves other [[disciplines]] such as [[psychology]], [[computer science]], [[statistics]], [[physics]], [[philosophy]], and [[medicine]]. As a result, the scope of neuroscience has broadened to include [[different]] approaches used to study the [[molecular]], [[developmental]], [[structural]], [[functional]], [[evolutionary]], [[computational]], and [[medical]] aspects of the nervous system. The [[techniques]] used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from biophysical and molecular studies of [[individual]] nerve cells to imaging of [[perceptual]] and motor tasks in the [[brain]]. Recent [[theoretical]] advances in neuroscience have also been aided by the use of [[Mathematical modeling|computational modeling]] of [[neural networks]]. The term neurobiology is usually used interchangeably with neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system.

'''Neuroscience''' is the [[scientific]] [[study]] of the [[nervous system]]. [[Traditionally]], neuroscience has been seen as a branch of [[biology]]. Nevertheless, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that involves other [[disciplines]] such as [[psychology]], [[computer science]], [[statistics]], [[physics]], [[philosophy]], and [[medicine]]. As a result, the scope of neuroscience has broadened to include [[different]] approaches used to study the [[molecular]], [[developmental]], [[structural]], [[functional]], [[evolutionary]], [[computational]], and [[medical]] aspects of the nervous system. The [[techniques]] used by neuroscientists have also expanded enormously, from biophysical and molecular studies of [[individual]] nerve cells to imaging of [[perceptual]] and motor tasks in the [[brain]]. Recent [[theoretical]] advances in neuroscience have also been aided by the use of [[Mathematical model|computational modeling]] of [[neural networks]]. The term neurobiology is usually used interchangeably with neuroscience, although the former refers specifically to the biology of the nervous system, whereas the latter refers to the entire science of the nervous system.

Given the ever-increasing [[number]] of neuroscientists that study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists and [[educators]]. For example, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Brain_Research_Organization International Brain Research Organization] was founded in 1960,[1] the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Brain_and_Behaviour_Society European Brain and Behaviour Society] in 1968,[2] and the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Neuroscience Society for Neuroscience] in 1969[3].

Given the ever-increasing [[number]] of neuroscientists that study the nervous system, several prominent neuroscience organizations have been formed to provide a forum to all neuroscientists and [[educators]]. For example, the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Brain_Research_Organization International Brain Research Organization] was founded in 1960,[1] the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Brain_and_Behaviour_Society European Brain and Behaviour Society] in 1968,[2] and the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Neuroscience Society for Neuroscience] in 1969[3].

 

 

==History==

==History==

The study of the nervous system dates back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt ancient Egypt]. [[Evidence]] of trepanation, the surgical [[practice]] of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull with the aim of curing headaches or mental disorders or relieving cranial pressure, being [[performed]] on patients dates back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic Neolithic] times and has been found in various [[cultures]] throughout the world. Manuscripts dating back to 1700BC indicated that the Egyptians had some [[knowledge]] about symptoms of brain damage.

The study of the nervous system dates back to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt ancient Egypt]. [[Evidence]] of trepanation, the surgical [[practice]] of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull with the aim of curing headaches or mental disorders or relieving cranial pressure, being [[performed]] on patients dates back to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic Neolithic] times and has been found in various [[cultures]] throughout the world. Manuscripts dating back to 1700BC indicated that the Egyptians had some [[knowledge]] about symptoms of brain damage.

Early views on the [[function]] of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In Egypt, from the late [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt Middle Kingdom] onwards, the brain was regularly removed in [[preparation]] for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummy mummification]. It was believed at the time that the [[heart]] was the seat of [[intelligence]]. According to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus Herodotus], during the first step of mummification: "The most [[perfect]] [[practice]] is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs".

Early views on the [[function]] of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In Egypt, from the late [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt Middle Kingdom] onwards, the brain was regularly removed in [[preparation]] for [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mummy mummification]. It was believed at the time that the [[heart]] was the seat of [[intelligence]]. According to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus Herodotus], during the first step of mummification: "The most [[perfect]] [[practice]] is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs".

The view that the [[heart]] was the source of [[consciousness]] was not challenged until the time of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates Hippocrates]. He believed that the brain was not only involved with [[sensation]], since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain, but was also the seat of [[intelligence]]. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle Aristotle], however, believed that the heart was the [[center]] of intelligence and that the brain served to cool the blood. This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen Galen], a follower of Hippocrates and physician to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator Roman gladiators], observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.

The view that the [[heart]] was the source of [[consciousness]] was not challenged until the time of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates Hippocrates]. He believed that the brain was not only involved with [[sensation]], since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain, but was also the seat of [[intelligence]]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle Aristotle], however, believed that the heart was the [[center]] of intelligence and that the brain served to cool the blood. This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen Galen], a follower of Hippocrates and physician to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gladiator Roman gladiators], observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.

In [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus al-Andalus], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim Abulcasis], the father of modern surgery, developed [[material]] and [[technical]] [[designs]] which are still used in neurosurgery. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes Averroes] suggested the [[existence]] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease Parkinson's disease] and attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina. Avenzoar described meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, mediastinal tumours and made contributions to modern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropharmacology neuropharmacology]. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides Maimonides] wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication.[5] Elsewhere in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages medieval Europe], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesalius Vesalius] (1514-1564) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes René Descartes] (1596-1650) also made several contributions to neuroscience.

In [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Andalus al-Andalus], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim Abulcasis], the father of modern surgery, developed [[material]] and [[technical]] [[designs]] which are still used in neurosurgery. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes Averroes] suggested the [[existence]] of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkinson%27s_disease Parkinson's disease] and attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina. Avenzoar described meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, mediastinal tumours and made contributions to modern [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropharmacology neuropharmacology]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maimonides Maimonides] wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication.[5] Elsewhere in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages medieval Europe], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesalius Vesalius] (1514-1564) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes René Descartes] (1596-1650) also made several contributions to neuroscience.

Studies of the [[brain]] became more sophisticated after the [[invention]] of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope microscope] and the development of a staining procedure by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Golgi Camillo Golgi] during the late 1890s that used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate [[structures]] of single [[neurons]]. His technique was used by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal Santiago Ramón y Cajal] and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the [[hypothesis]] that the [[function]]al unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive [[observations]], descriptions and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. The hypotheses of the neuron doctrine were supported by [[experiments]] following Galvani's pioneering work in the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In the late 19th century, DuBois-Reymond, Müller, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Helmholtz von Helmholtz] showed neurons were electrically excitable and that their activity predictably affected the electrical state of adjacent neurons.

Studies of the [[brain]] became more sophisticated after the [[invention]] of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope microscope] and the development of a staining procedure by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camillo_Golgi Camillo Golgi] during the late 1890s that used a silver chromate salt to reveal the intricate [[structures]] of single [[neurons]]. His technique was used by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal Santiago Ramón y Cajal] and led to the formation of the neuron doctrine, the [[hypothesis]] that the [[function]]al unit of the brain is the neuron. Golgi and Ramón y Cajal shared the [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology or Medicine in 1906 for their extensive [[observations]], descriptions and categorizations of neurons throughout the brain. The hypotheses of the neuron doctrine were supported by [[experiments]] following Galvani's pioneering work in the electrical excitability of muscles and neurons. In the late 19th century, DuBois-Reymond, Müller, and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Helmholtz von Helmholtz] showed neurons were electrically excitable and that their activity predictably affected the electrical state of adjacent neurons.

In [[parallel]] with this [[research]], work with brain-damaged patients by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Broca Paul Broca] suggested that certain regions of the [[brain]] were responsible for certain [[functions]]. At the time Broca's findings were seen as a confirmation of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Joseph_Gall Franz Joseph Gall]'s [[theory]] that [[language]] was localized and certain [[psychological]] functions were localized in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex cerebral cortex].[6][7] The localization of function hypothesis was supported by [[observations]] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy epileptic] patients conducted by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hughlings_Jackson John Hughlings Jackson], who correctly deduced the organization of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cortex motor cortex] by watching the progression of seizures through the [[body]]. Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern [[research]] still uses the Brodmann cytoarchitectonic (referring to [[study]] of [[cell]] [[structure]]) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.[8]

In [[parallel]] with this [[research]], work with brain-damaged patients by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Broca Paul Broca] suggested that certain regions of the [[brain]] were responsible for certain [[functions]]. At the time Broca's findings were seen as a confirmation of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Joseph_Gall Franz Joseph Gall]'s [[theory]] that [[language]] was localized and certain [[psychological]] functions were localized in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex cerebral cortex].[6][7] The localization of function hypothesis was supported by [[observations]] of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilepsy epileptic] patients conducted by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hughlings_Jackson John Hughlings Jackson], who correctly deduced the organization of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_cortex motor cortex] by watching the progression of seizures through the [[body]]. Wernicke further developed the theory of the specialization of specific brain structures in language comprehension and production. Modern [[research]] still uses the Brodmann cytoarchitectonic (referring to [[study]] of [[cell]] [[structure]]) anatomical definitions from this era in continuing to show that distinct areas of the cortex are activated in the execution of specific tasks.[8]

==Foundations of modern neuroscience==

==Foundations of modern neuroscience==

The [[scientific]] [[study]] of the [[nervous system]]s underwent a significant increase in the second half of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century twentieth century], principally due to [[revolution]]s in molecular [[biology]], electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. It has become possible to [[understand]], in much detail, the [[complex]] [[processes]] occurring within a single neuron. However, how networks of neurons produce [[intellectual]] [[behavior]], [[cognition]], [[emotion]], and physiological [[responses]] is still poorly understood.

The [[scientific]] [[study]] of the [[nervous system]]s underwent a significant increase in the second half of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_Century twentieth century], principally due to [[revolution]]s in molecular [[biology]], electrophysiology, and computational neuroscience. It has become possible to [[understand]], in much detail, the [[complex]] [[processes]] occurring within a single neuron. However, how networks of neurons produce [[intellectual]] [[behavior]], [[cognition]], [[emotion]], and physiological [[responses]] is still poorly understood.

<blockquote>“The task of neural science is to explain behavior in terms of the activities of the brain. How does the brain marshal its millions of individual nerve cells to produce behavior, and how are these cells influenced by the environment...? The last frontier of the biological sciences – their ultimate challenge – is to understand the biological basis of consciousness and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember. — Eric Kandel, Principles of Neural Science, fourth edition”</blockquote>

<blockquote>“The task of neural science is to explain behavior in terms of the activities of the brain. How does the brain marshal its millions of individual nerve cells to produce behavior, and how are these cells influenced by the environment...? The last frontier of the biological sciences – their ultimate challenge – is to understand the biological basis of consciousness and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember. — Eric Kandel, Principles of Neural Science, fourth edition”</blockquote>

The nervous system is composed of a network of neurons and other supportive cells (such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glial_cell glial] cells). Neurons form [[functional]] [[circuits]], each responsible for specific tasks to the [[behaviors]] at the [[organism]] level. Thus, neuroscience can be studied at many [[different]] [[levels]], ranging from molecular level to cellular level to [[systems]] level to [[cognitive]] level.

The nervous system is composed of a network of neurons and other supportive cells (such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glial_cell glial] cells). Neurons form [[functional]] [[circuits]], each responsible for specific tasks to the [[behaviors]] at the [[organism]] level. Thus, neuroscience can be studied at many [[different]] [[levels]], ranging from molecular level to cellular level to [[systems]] level to [[cognitive]] level.

*At the [[Molecule|molecular] level, the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the [[mechanisms]] by which neurons [[express]] and [[respond]] to molecular [[signals]] and how axons form [[complex]] [[connectivity]] [[patterns]]. At this level, [[tools]] from molecular biology and [[genetics]] are used to [[understand]] how neurons develop and die, and how genetic [[changes]] affect biological functions. The morphology, molecular [[identity]] and physiological [[characteristics]] of neurons and how they relate to different [[types]] of [[behavior]] are also of considerable interest. (The ways in which neurons and their connections are modified by [[experience]] are addressed at the physiological and cognitive levels.)

*At the [[Molecule|molecular] level, the basic questions addressed in molecular neuroscience include the [[mechanisms]] by which neurons [[express]] and [[respond]] to molecular [[signals]] and how axons form [[complex]] [[connectivity]] [[patterns]]. At this level, [[tools]] from molecular biology and [[genetics]] are used to [[understand]] how neurons develop and die, and how genetic [[changes]] affect biological functions. The morphology, molecular [[identity]] and physiological [[characteristics]] of neurons and how they relate to different [[types]] of [[behavior]] are also of considerable interest. (The ways in which neurons and their connections are modified by [[experience]] are addressed at the physiological and cognitive levels.)

*At the [[Cell|cellular]] level, the [[Foundation|fundamental]] questions addressed in cellular neuroscience are the [[mechanisms]] of how neurons [[process]] signals physiologically and electrochemically. They address how signals are processed by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrite dendrites], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma_(biology) somas] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon axons], and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process signals in a neuron. Another major area of neuroscience is directed at [[Examination|investigations]] of the [[development]] of the [[nervous system]]. These questions of neural development include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, neural stem cells, differentiation of neurons and glia, neuronal migration, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, and synapse formation.

*At the [[Cell|cellular]] level, the [[Foundation|fundamental]] questions addressed in cellular neuroscience are the [[mechanisms]] of how neurons [[process]] signals physiologically and electrochemically. They address how signals are processed by the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dendrite dendrites], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soma_(biology) somas] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon axons], and how neurotransmitters and electrical signals are used to process signals in a neuron. Another major area of neuroscience is directed at [[Examination|investigations]] of the [[development]] of the [[nervous system]]. These questions of neural development include the patterning and regionalization of the nervous system, neural stem cells, differentiation of neurons and glia, neuronal migration, axonal and dendritic development, trophic interactions, and synapse formation.

*At the [[systems]] level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how the [[circuits]] are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce the physiological [[functions]], such as reflexes, sensory [[integration]], motor coordination, circadian rhythms, [[emotional]] [[responses]], [[learning]] and [[memory]]. In other [[words]], they address how these neural circuits function and the [[mechanisms]] through which [[behaviors]] are generated. For example, systems level [[analysis]] addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does [[vision]] work? How do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? How does the somatosensory system process [[Touch|tactile]] [[information]]? The related field of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethology neuroethology], in particular, addresses the [[complex]] question of how neural substrates underlies specific [[animal]] [[behavior]].

*At the [[systems]] level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how the [[circuits]] are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce the physiological [[functions]], such as reflexes, sensory [[integration]], motor coordination, circadian rhythms, [[emotional]] [[responses]], [[learning]] and [[memory]]. In other [[words]], they address how these neural circuits function and the [[mechanisms]] through which [[behaviors]] are generated. For example, systems level [[analysis]] addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does [[vision]] work? How do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? How does the somatosensory system process [[Touch|tactile]] [[information]]? The related field of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuroethology neuroethology], in particular, addresses the [[complex]] question of how neural substrates underlies specific [[animal]] [[behavior]].

*At the [[cognitive]] level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how [[psychological]]/[[cognitive]] functions are produced by the [[Neural Network|neural circuitry]]. The emergence of [[power]]ful new measurement [[technique]]s such as neuroimaging (e. g.,fMRI, PET, SPECT), electrophysiology and [[human]] [[genetic]] [[analysis]] combined with sophisticated [[experimental]] [[techniques]] from cognitive [[psychology]] allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address [[abstract]] questions such as how human [[cognition]] and [[emotion]] are mapped to specific neural circuitries.

*At the [[cognitive]] level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how [[psychological]]/[[cognitive]] functions are produced by the [[Neural Network|neural circuitry]]. The emergence of [[power]]ful new measurement [[technique]]s such as neuroimaging (e. g.,fMRI, PET, SPECT), electrophysiology and [[human]] [[genetic]] [[analysis]] combined with sophisticated [[experimental]] [[techniques]] from cognitive [[psychology]] allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address [[abstract]] questions such as how human [[cognition]] and [[emotion]] are mapped to specific neural circuitries.

Neuroscience is also allied with the [[Social Sciences|social and behavioral sciences]], and burgeoning interdisciplinary fields such as neuroeconomics, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_theory decision theory], social neuroscience are addressing complex questions on the interactions of the brain with its [[environment]].

Neuroscience is also allied with the [[Social Sciences|social and behavioral sciences]], and burgeoning interdisciplinary fields such as neuroeconomics, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decision_theory decision theory], social neuroscience are addressing complex questions on the interactions of the brain with its [[environment]].

==Neuroscience and medicine==

==Neuroscience and medicine==

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology Neurology], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry psychiatry], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropathology neuropathology] are medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the [[nervous system]]. These terms also refer to clinical [[disciplines]] involving diagnosis and treatment of these [[diseases]]. Neurology deals with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis amyotrophic lateral sclerosis] (ALS) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke stroke], while psychiatry [[focuses]] on [[behavioral]], [[cognitive]], and [[emotional]] disorders. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic and chemically observable alterations. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently, and they are all influenced by basic [[research]] in neuroscience.

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurology Neurology], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychiatry psychiatry], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuropathology neuropathology] are medical specialties that specifically address the diseases of the [[nervous system]]. These terms also refer to clinical [[disciplines]] involving diagnosis and treatment of these [[diseases]]. Neurology deals with diseases of the central and peripheral nervous systems such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis amyotrophic lateral sclerosis] (ALS) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke stroke], while psychiatry [[focuses]] on [[behavioral]], [[cognitive]], and [[emotional]] disorders. Neuropathology focuses upon the classification and underlying pathogenic mechanisms of central and peripheral nervous system and muscle diseases, with an emphasis on morphologic, microscopic and chemically observable alterations. The boundaries between these specialties have been blurring recently, and they are all influenced by basic [[research]] in neuroscience.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience Integrative neuroscience] makes connections across these specialized areas of focus.

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrative_neuroscience Integrative neuroscience] makes connections across these specialized areas of focus.

==Quote==

==Quote==

The discriminative operation of the [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_7#7:1._THE_SPIRIT-GRAVITY_CIRCUIT spirit-gravity circuit] might possibly be compared to the [[functions]] of the [[neural circuits]] in the [[material]] [[human]] [[body]]: Sensations travel inward over the neural paths; some are detained and responded to by the lower [[automatic]] spinal [[center]]s; others pass on to the less automatic but [[habit]]-[[trained]] centers of the lower [[brain]], while the most important and [[vital]] incoming messages flash by these subordinate centers and are [[immediate]]ly registered in the highest levels of human [[consciousness]]. [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_7#7:3._RELATION_OF_THE_ETERNAL_SON_TO_THE_INDIVIDUAL 7.3:4]

The discriminative operation of the [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_7#7:1._THE_SPIRIT-GRAVITY_CIRCUIT spirit-gravity circuit] might possibly be compared to the [[functions]] of the [[neural circuits]] in the [[material]] [[human]] [[body]]: Sensations travel inward over the neural paths; some are detained and responded to by the lower [[automatic]] spinal [[center]]s; others pass on to the less automatic but [[habit]]-[[trained]] centers of the lower [[brain]], while the most important and [[vital]] incoming messages flash by these subordinate centers and are [[immediate]]ly registered in the highest levels of human [[consciousness]]. [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Paper_7#7:3._RELATION_OF_THE_ETERNAL_SON_TO_THE_INDIVIDUAL 7.3:4]

==References==

==References==

# "International Brain Research Organization (IBRO)". http://www.ibro.info/Pub/Pub_Front.asp.  

# "International Brain Research Organization (IBRO)". https://www.ibro.info/Pub/Pub_Front.asp.  

# "ABOUT EBBS". http://www.ebbs-science.org/about_ebbs.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-03.  

# "ABOUT EBBS". https://www.ebbs-science.org/about_ebbs.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-03.  

# "Society for Neuroscience: Presidents". http://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=presidents&section=about_SfN.  

# "Society for Neuroscience: Presidents". https://www.sfn.org/index.cfm?pagename=presidents&section=about_SfN.  

# http://www.ibro.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199

# https://www.ibro.info/Pub/Pub_Main_Display.asp?LC_Docs_ID=3199

# Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.

# Martin-Araguz, A.; Bustamante-Martinez, C.; Fernandez-Armayor, Ajo V.; Moreno-Martinez, J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine", Revista de neurología 34 (9), p. 877-892.

# Greenblatt, SH., (1995) "Phrenology in the science and culture of the 19th century, " Neurosurgery 37 790-805.

# Greenblatt, SH., (1995) "Phrenology in the science and culture of the 19th century, " Neurosurgery 37 790-805.

# Pfaff, Donald W., "The Neuroscience of Fair Play: Why We (Usually) Follow the Golden Rule", Dana Press, The Dana Foundation, New York, 2007. ISBN 9781932594270

# Pfaff, Donald W., "The Neuroscience of Fair Play: Why We (Usually) Follow the Golden Rule", Dana Press, The Dana Foundation, New York, 2007. ISBN 9781932594270

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://www.neuinfo.org Neuroscience Information Framework (NIF)]

*[https://www.ctrforchristcon.org/human-system.asp Divine Operating System]

* [http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Biology/Neurobiology/ Neurobiology] at the Open Directory Project

* [https://www.neuinfo.org Neuroscience Information Framework (NIF)]

* [http://www.funfaculty.org/drupal/ Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN)]

* [https://www.dmoz.org/Science/Biology/Neurobiology/ Neurobiology] at the Open Directory Project

* [http://www.sfn.org Society for Neuroscience (SFN)]

* [https://www.funfaculty.org/drupal/ Faculty for Undergraduate Neuroscience (FUN)]

* [http://www.asneurochem.org American Society for Neurochemistry]

* [https://www.sfn.org Society for Neuroscience (SFN)]

* [http://www.ibro.org International Brain Research Organization (IBRO)]

* [https://www.asneurochem.org American Society for Neurochemistry]

* [http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/ Neuroscience Online (electronic neuroscience textbook)]

* [https://www.ibro.org International Brain Research Organization (IBRO)]

* [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for Kids]

* [https://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/ Neuroscience Online (electronic neuroscience textbook)]

* [https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for Kids]

* [https://www.researchgate.net/group/Neuroscience Neuroscience Discussion Group] in ResearchGate

* [https://www.researchgate.net/group/Neuroscience Neuroscience Discussion Group] in ResearchGate

[[Category: Biology]]

[[Category: Biology]]

[[Category: Psychology]]

[[Category: Psychology]]