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The term sophism originated from [[Greek]] σόφισμα, sophisma, from σοφίζω, sophizo "I am [[wise]]"; confer σοφιστής, sophistēs, [[meaning]] "wise-ist, one who does wisdom, one who makes a [[business]] out of wisdom" and σοφός, sophós means "wise man".

The term sophism originated from [[Greek]] σόφισμα, sophisma, from σοφίζω, sophizo "I am [[wise]]"; confer σοφιστής, sophistēs, [[meaning]] "wise-ist, one who does wisdom, one who makes a [[business]] out of wisdom" and σοφός, sophós means "wise man".

==Sophists of Ancient Greece==

==Sophists of Ancient Greece==

The [[Greek]] [[words]] sophos or sophia had the [[meaning]] of "wise" or "[[wisdom]]" since the time of the [[poet]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer Homer], and [[originally]] connoted anyone with expertise in a specific [[domain]] of [[knowledge]] or craft. Thus a charioteer, a sculptor, and a warrior could be sophoi in their occupations. [[Gradually]] the word came to denote general [[wisdom]] and especially wisdom about [[human]] affairs (in, for example, [[politics]], [[ethics]], or household [[management]]). This was the term given to the Greek [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece Seven Sages] of 7th and 6th Century BC (like [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon Solon] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales Thales]), and this was the [[meaning]] that appeared in the histories of  [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus Herodotus]. At about the same time, the term [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophistes sophistes] was a synonym for "[[poet]]", and (by [[association]] with the traditional role of poets as the [[teachers]] of [[society]]) a synonym for one who teaches, in particular through the [[performance]] of prose works or [[speeches]] that impart [[practical]] [[knowledge]]. Richard Martin refers to the seven sages as "[[performers]] of [[political]] [[poetry]]."1

The [[Greek]] [[words]] sophos or sophia had the [[meaning]] of "wise" or "[[wisdom]]" since the time of the [[poet]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homer Homer], and [[originally]] connoted anyone with expertise in a specific [[domain]] of [[knowledge]] or craft. Thus a charioteer, a sculptor, and a warrior could be sophoi in their occupations. [[Gradually]] the word came to denote general [[wisdom]] and especially wisdom about [[human]] affairs (in, for example, [[politics]], [[ethics]], or household [[management]]). This was the term given to the Greek [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_Greece Seven Sages] of 7th and 6th Century BC (like [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon Solon] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thales Thales]), and this was the [[meaning]] that appeared in the histories of  [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus Herodotus]. At about the same time, the term [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophistes sophistes] was a synonym for "[[poet]]", and (by [[association]] with the traditional role of poets as the [[teachers]] of [[society]]) a synonym for one who teaches, in particular through the [[performance]] of prose works or [[speeches]] that impart [[practical]] [[knowledge]]. Richard Martin refers to the seven sages as "[[performers]] of [[political]] [[poetry]]."1

In the second half of the 5th century BC, particularly at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens Athens], "sophist" came to denote a class of itinerant [[intellectuals]] who taught courses in "excellence" or "[[virtue]]," speculated about the [[nature]] of [[language]] and [[culture]] and employed [[rhetoric]] to achieve their [[purposes]], generally to [[persuade]] or convince others. Sophists claimed that they could find the answers to all questions. Most of these sophists are known today primarily through the [[writings]] of their opponents (specifically [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato Plato] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle Aristotle]), which makes it [[difficult]] to assemble an unbiased view of their [[practices]] and [[beliefs]].

In the second half of the 5th century BC, particularly at [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens Athens], "sophist" came to denote a class of itinerant [[intellectuals]] who taught courses in "excellence" or "[[virtue]]," speculated about the [[nature]] of [[language]] and [[culture]] and employed [[rhetoric]] to achieve their [[purposes]], generally to [[persuade]] or convince others. Sophists claimed that they could find the answers to all questions. Most of these sophists are known today primarily through the [[writings]] of their opponents (specifically [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato Plato] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle Aristotle]), which makes it [[difficult]] to assemble an unbiased view of their [[practices]] and [[beliefs]].

Many of them taught their [[skills]] for a price. Due to the importance of such skills in the litigious social life of Athens, practitioners often commanded very high fees. The [[practice]] of taking fees, along with the sophists' practice of questioning the [[existence]] and roles of [[traditional]] [[deities]] (this was done to make "the weaker [[argument]] appear the stronger") and [[investigating]] into the [[nature]] of the [[heavens]] and the [[earth]] prompted a popular [[reaction]] against them. Their attacks against [[Socrates]] (in fictional prosecution speeches) prompted a vigorous condemnation from his followers, including [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato Plato] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophon Xenophon], as there was a popular view of [[Socrates]] as a sophist. Their [[attitude]], coupled with the [[wealth]] garnered by many of the sophists, [[eventually]] led to popular resentment against sophist practitioners and the [[ideas]] and [[writings]] associated with sophism.

Many of them taught their [[skills]] for a price. Due to the importance of such skills in the litigious social life of Athens, practitioners often commanded very high fees. The [[practice]] of taking fees, along with the sophists' practice of questioning the [[existence]] and roles of [[traditional]] [[deities]] (this was done to make "the weaker [[argument]] appear the stronger") and [[investigating]] into the [[nature]] of the [[heavens]] and the [[earth]] prompted a popular [[reaction]] against them. Their attacks against [[Socrates]] (in fictional prosecution speeches) prompted a vigorous condemnation from his followers, including [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato Plato] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenophon Xenophon], as there was a popular view of [[Socrates]] as a sophist. Their [[attitude]], coupled with the [[wealth]] garnered by many of the sophists, [[eventually]] led to popular resentment against sophist practitioners and the [[ideas]] and [[writings]] associated with sophism.

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras Protagoras] is generally regarded as the first of the sophists. Others include [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias Gorgias], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodicus Prodicus], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippias Hippias], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrasymachus Thrasymachus], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycophron Lycophron], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callicles Callicles], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiphon_(person) Antiphon], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cratylus Cratylus].

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras Protagoras] is generally regarded as the first of the sophists. Others include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias Gorgias], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prodicus Prodicus], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippias Hippias], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrasymachus Thrasymachus], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lycophron Lycophron], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callicles Callicles], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiphon_(person) Antiphon], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cratylus Cratylus].

In comparison, [[Socrates]] accepted no fee, instead adopting a self-effacing posture, which he exemplified by Socratic questioning (i.e. the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method Socratic method], although [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius Diogenes Laertius] wrote that Protagoras—a sophist—[[invented]] the “Socratic” method[1][2]). His [[attitude]] towards the Sophists was by no means [[opposition]]al; in one [[dialogue]] Socrates even stated that the Sophists were better educators than he was [3], which he validated by sending one of his students to [[study]] under a sophist.[4] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._K._C._Guthrie W. K. C. Guthrie] associated Socrates with the Sophists in his ''History of Greek Philosophy''.[4]

In comparison, [[Socrates]] accepted no fee, instead adopting a self-effacing posture, which he exemplified by Socratic questioning (i.e. the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socratic_method Socratic method], although [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diogenes_Laertius Diogenes Laertius] wrote that Protagoras—a sophist—[[invented]] the “Socratic” method[1][2]). His [[attitude]] towards the Sophists was by no means [[opposition]]al; in one [[dialogue]] Socrates even stated that the Sophists were better educators than he was [3], which he validated by sending one of his students to [[study]] under a sophist.[4] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._K._C._Guthrie W. K. C. Guthrie] associated Socrates with the Sophists in his ''History of Greek Philosophy''.[4]

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato Plato], the most illustrious student of [[Socrates]], depicts Socrates as refuting the sophists in several Dialogues. These [[texts]] depict the sophists in an unflattering [[light]], and it is unclear how accurate or fair Plato's [[representation]] of them may be; however, it is also suggested that such [[criticism]] was often [[ironic]]. Another contemporary, the comic playwright [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes Aristophanes], criticizes the sophists as hairsplitting wordsmiths, yet suggests that Socrates was one of their number.

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato Plato], the most illustrious student of [[Socrates]], depicts Socrates as refuting the sophists in several Dialogues. These [[texts]] depict the sophists in an unflattering [[light]], and it is unclear how accurate or fair Plato's [[representation]] of them may be; however, it is also suggested that such [[criticism]] was often [[ironic]]. Another contemporary, the comic playwright [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes Aristophanes], criticizes the sophists as hairsplitting wordsmiths, yet suggests that Socrates was one of their number.

Plato is largely [[responsible]] for the modern view of the "sophist" as a greedy instructor who uses [[rhetorical]] sleight-of-hand and [[ambiguities]] of [[language]] in order to [[deceive]], or to support fallacious [[reasoning]]. In this view, the sophist is not concerned with [[truth]] and [[justice]], but instead seeks [[power]]. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle all challenged the philosophical [[foundations]] of sophism.

Plato is largely [[responsible]] for the modern view of the "sophist" as a greedy instructor who uses [[rhetorical]] sleight-of-hand and [[ambiguities]] of [[language]] in order to [[deceive]], or to support fallacious [[reasoning]]. In this view, the sophist is not concerned with [[truth]] and [[justice]], but instead seeks [[power]]. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle all challenged the philosophical [[foundations]] of sophism.

Some scholars argue that the sophists held a [[relativistic]] view on [[cognition]] and [[knowledge]]. However, this may be due to a mis-reading of the [[Greek]] word "doxa," which means "culturally [[shared]] [[belief]]" rather than "[[individual]] [[opinion]]." Thus it may be more accurate to say that they [[believed]] that [[knowledge]] is socially constructed. Their [[philosophy]] contains [[criticism]] of [[religion]], [[law]], and [[ethics]]. Though many sophists were apparently as religious as their contemporaries, some held [[atheistic]] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosticism agnostic] views (for example, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras Protagoras] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagoras_of_Melos Diagoras of Melos]).

Some scholars argue that the sophists held a [[relativistic]] view on [[cognition]] and [[knowledge]]. However, this may be due to a mis-reading of the [[Greek]] word "doxa," which means "culturally [[shared]] [[belief]]" rather than "[[individual]] [[opinion]]." Thus it may be more accurate to say that they [[believed]] that [[knowledge]] is socially constructed. Their [[philosophy]] contains [[criticism]] of [[religion]], [[law]], and [[ethics]]. Though many sophists were apparently as religious as their contemporaries, some held [[atheistic]] or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosticism agnostic] views (for example, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protagoras Protagoras] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diagoras_of_Melos Diagoras of Melos]).

In some cases, such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias Gorgias], there are [[original]] [[rhetorical]] [[works]] that are fortunately extant, allowing the [[author]] to be judged on his own terms. In most cases, however, [[knowledge]] of sophist thought comes from fragmentary quotations that lack [[context]]. Many of these quotations come from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle Aristotle], who seems to have held the sophists in slight regard, notwithstanding his other disagreements with Plato.

In some cases, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgias Gorgias], there are [[original]] [[rhetorical]] [[works]] that are fortunately extant, allowing the [[author]] to be judged on his own terms. In most cases, however, [[knowledge]] of sophist thought comes from fragmentary quotations that lack [[context]]. Many of these quotations come from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle Aristotle], who seems to have held the sophists in slight regard, notwithstanding his other disagreements with Plato.

Owing largely to the [[influence]] of Plato and Aristotle, [[philosophy]] came to be regarded as distinct from sophistry, the latter being regarded as [[rhetoric]], a [[practical]] [[discipline]]. Thus, by the time of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire Roman Empire], a sophist was simply a [[teacher]] of [[rhetoric]] and a popular [[public]] speaker. For instance, Libanius, Himerius, Aelius Aristides, and Fronto were sophists in this sense.

Owing largely to the [[influence]] of Plato and Aristotle, [[philosophy]] came to be regarded as distinct from sophistry, the latter being regarded as [[rhetoric]], a [[practical]] [[discipline]]. Thus, by the time of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire Roman Empire], a sophist was simply a [[teacher]] of [[rhetoric]] and a popular [[public]] speaker. For instance, Libanius, Himerius, Aelius Aristides, and Fronto were sophists in this sense.

[edit] Sophists and democracy

[edit] Sophists and democracy

# Jarratt, Susan C. Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured. Carbon dale and Edwards ville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991, p. 98

# Jarratt, Susan C. Rereading the Sophists: Classical Rhetoric Refigured. Carbon dale and Edwards ville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1991, p. 98

# Martin, Richard. "Seven Sages as Performers of Wisdom." Cultural Poetics in Archaic Greece. New York: Oxford, 1988. 108-130.

# Martin, Richard. "Seven Sages as Performers of Wisdom." Cultural Poetics in Archaic Greece. New York: Oxford, 1988. 108-130.

# http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20095778 Sophists, sophistry, and modern medical education. Medical Teacher 2010 Jan;32(1):71-5.

# https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20095778 Sophists, sophistry, and modern medical education. Medical Teacher 2010 Jan;32(1):71-5.

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/sophist.html Plato's Dialogue: Sophist]

* [https://classics.mit.edu/Plato/sophist.html Plato's Dialogue: Sophist]

*  [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Sophists "Sophists". Catholic Encyclopedia]. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.  

*  [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Sophists "Sophists". Catholic Encyclopedia]. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913.  

[[Category: Philosophy]]

[[Category: Philosophy]]

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[[Category: Languages and Literature]]