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[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]][[Image:MemoryMirrorWeb2.jpg|right|frame|<center>[http://www.interaction.rca.ac.uk/people/alumni/04-06/daniel-kupfer/projects/project1.html Memory Mirror]</center>]]

[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]][[Image:MemoryMirrorWeb2.jpg|right|frame|<center>[https://www.interaction.rca.ac.uk/people/alumni/04-06/daniel-kupfer/projects/project1.html Memory Mirror]</center>]]

In [[psychology]], '''memory''' is an organism's [[mind|mental]] ability to store, retain and recall information. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of [[philosophy]], including mnemonic techniques of artificially enhancing the memory]].

In [[psychology]], '''memory''' is an organism's [[mind|mental]] ability to store, retain and recall information. Traditional studies of memory began in the fields of [[philosophy]], including mnemonic techniques of artificially enhancing the memory]].

people can remember a great deal more letters. This is because they are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of letters. Beyond finding meaning in the abbreviations above, Herbert Simon showed that the ideal size for chunking letters and numbers, meaningful or not, was three. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to remember phone numbers as several chunks of three numbers with the final four-number groups generally broken down into two groups of two.

people can remember a great deal more letters. This is because they are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of letters. Beyond finding meaning in the abbreviations above, Herbert Simon showed that the ideal size for chunking letters and numbers, meaningful or not, was three. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to remember phone numbers as several chunks of three numbers with the final four-number groups generally broken down into two groups of two.

Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. [http://step.psy.cmu.edu/articles/Conrad64.doc Acoustic Confusions in Immediate Memory] found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of words that were acoustically similar (e.g. dog, hog, fog, bog, log).

Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. [https://step.psy.cmu.edu/articles/Conrad64.doc Acoustic Confusions in Immediate Memory] found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of words that were acoustically similar (e.g. dog, hog, fog, bog, log).

However, some individuals have been reported to be able to remember large amounts of information, quickly, and be able to recall that information in seconds.

However, some individuals have been reported to be able to remember large amounts of information, quickly, and be able to recall that information in seconds.

Declarative memory requires [[conscious]] recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called ''explicit memory'', since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.

Declarative memory requires [[conscious]] recall, in that some conscious process must call back the information. It is sometimes called ''explicit memory'', since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved.

Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into [[semantic memory]], which concerns facts taken independent of context; and [[episodic memory]], which concerns information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract [[knowledge]] about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. [[Autobiographical memory]] - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. [[Visual memory]] is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in [[priming (psychology)|priming]] and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon. [http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Memory%2C_visual]

Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into [[semantic memory]], which concerns facts taken independent of context; and [[episodic memory]], which concerns information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract [[knowledge]] about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. [[Autobiographical memory]] - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. [[Visual memory]] is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in [[priming (psychology)|priming]] and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon. [https://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Memory%2C_visual]

In contrast, procedural memory or ''implicit memory'') is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in [[motor learning]] depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

In contrast, procedural memory or ''implicit memory'') is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in [[motor learning]] depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

'''Topographic memory''' is the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places.[http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/iidris/cache/an/40/4003] Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of failure of topographic memory failure. This is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The disorder could be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory.[http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=76974189]

'''Topographic memory''' is the ability to orient oneself in space, to recognize and follow an itinerary, or to recognize familiar places.[https://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/iidris/cache/an/40/4003] Getting lost when traveling alone is an example of failure of topographic memory failure. This is often reported among elderly patients who are evaluated for dementia. The disorder could be caused by multiple impairments, including difficulties with perception, orientation, and memory.[https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=76974189]

== Classification by temporal direction ==

== Classification by temporal direction ==

== Physiology ==

== Physiology ==

Overall, the mechanisms of memory are not completely understood.[http://www.dukehealth.org/HealthLibrary/News/scientists_identify_machinery_that_helps_make_memories]

Overall, the mechanisms of memory are not completely understood.[https://www.dukehealth.org/HealthLibrary/News/scientists_identify_machinery_that_helps_make_memories]

Brain areas such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, [[learning]], as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal [[synapse]]s, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

Brain areas such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, [[learning]], as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal [[synapse]]s, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders. Loss of memory is known as [[amnesia]]. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as [[Alzheimer's disease]] can also affect memory and cognition.

Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders. Loss of memory is known as [[amnesia]]. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as [[Alzheimer's disease]] can also affect memory and cognition.

Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored.[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg19726431.600-forgetfulness-is-key-to-a-healthy-mind.html Forgetfulness is the Key to a Healthy Mind].  

Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder which affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored.[https://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg19726431.600-forgetfulness-is-key-to-a-healthy-mind.html Forgetfulness is the Key to a Healthy Mind].  

While not a disorder, a common ''temporary'' failure of word retrieval from memory is the "''tip-of-the-tongue''" [[phenomenon]]. Sufferers of Nominal Aphasia, however, do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.

While not a disorder, a common ''temporary'' failure of word retrieval from memory is the "''tip-of-the-tongue''" [[phenomenon]]. Sufferers of Nominal Aphasia, however, do experience the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon on an ongoing basis due to damage to the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain.

Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. [[Rote learning]] is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as [[Cosmos Rossellius]] using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is [[Cram school|cramming]] which is intensive memorization in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.

Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. [[Rote learning]] is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as [[Cosmos Rossellius]] using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is [[Cram school|cramming]] which is intensive memorization in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.

In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered better later.[http://newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/3/12/90015.shtml Smell of Roses May Improve Memory].  

In March 2007 German researchers found they could use odors to re-activate new memories in the brains of people while they slept and the volunteers remembered better later.[https://newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/3/12/90015.shtml Smell of Roses May Improve Memory].  

Tony Noice, an actor, director, teacher and cognitive researcher, and his psychologist wife Helga, have studied how actors remember lines and found that their techniques can be useful to non-actors as well.[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/cdir/2006/00000015/00000001/art00004 What Studies of Actors and Acting Can Tell Us About Memory and Cognitive Functioning].  

Tony Noice, an actor, director, teacher and cognitive researcher, and his psychologist wife Helga, have studied how actors remember lines and found that their techniques can be useful to non-actors as well.[https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bpl/cdir/2006/00000015/00000001/art00004 What Studies of Actors and Acting Can Tell Us About Memory and Cognitive Functioning].  

At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University, researchers have found that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The findings appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.

At the Center for Cognitive Science at Ohio State University, researchers have found that memory accuracy of adults is hurt by the fact that they know more than children and tend to apply this knowledge when learning new information. The findings appeared in the August 2004 edition of the journal Psychological Science.

Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference when learning new information causes you to forget old information and proactive interference where learning one piece of information makes it harder to learn similar new information. [http://coglanglab.blogspot.com/2008/06/forgetting-what-you-havent-yet-learned.html]

Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference when learning new information causes you to forget old information and proactive interference where learning one piece of information makes it harder to learn similar new information. [https://coglanglab.blogspot.com/2008/06/forgetting-what-you-havent-yet-learned.html]

Emotion can have a powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory]

Emotion can have a powerful impact on memory. Numerous studies have shown that the most vivid autobiographical memories tend to be of emotional events, which are likely to be recalled more often and with more clarity and detail than neutral events. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory]

==Improving memory==

==Improving memory==

The best way to improve memory seems to be to increase the supply of oxygen to the brain, which may be accomplished with aerobic exercises; walking for three hours each week suffices, as does swimming or bicycle riding.  One study found that eating frequently such as five small meals a day promotes a healthy memory by preventing dips in blood glucose, the primary energy source for the brain.  [http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/UCLA-Study-Finds-that-Simple-Lifestyle-7062.aspx?RelNum=7062]

The best way to improve memory seems to be to increase the supply of oxygen to the brain, which may be accomplished with aerobic exercises; walking for three hours each week suffices, as does swimming or bicycle riding.  One study found that eating frequently such as five small meals a day promotes a healthy memory by preventing dips in blood glucose, the primary energy source for the brain.  [https://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/UCLA-Study-Finds-that-Simple-Lifestyle-7062.aspx?RelNum=7062]

The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a report [http://www.ilcusa.org/_lib/pdf/isoa.pdf] on memory which includes in pages 14-16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay [[intellect]]ually active through learning, training or [[reading]], to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition.

The International Longevity Center released in 2001 a report [https://www.ilcusa.org/_lib/pdf/isoa.pdf] on memory which includes in pages 14-16 recommendations for keeping the mind in good functionality until advanced age. Some of the recommendations are to stay [[intellect]]ually active through learning, training or [[reading]], to keep physically active so to promote blood circulation to the brain, to socialize, to reduce stress, to keep sleep time regular, to avoid depression or emotional instability and to observe good nutrition.

==Memory tasks==

==Memory tasks==

*'''Paired associate learning''' - when one learns to associate one specific word with another. For example when given a word such as  "safe" one must learn to say another specific word, such as green. This is stimulus and response.[http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-438701/paired-associate-learning paired-associate learning] - Britannica Online Encyclopedia

*'''Paired associate learning''' - when one learns to associate one specific word with another. For example when given a word such as  "safe" one must learn to say another specific word, such as green. This is stimulus and response.[https://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-438701/paired-associate-learning paired-associate learning] - Britannica Online Encyclopedia

*'''Free recall'''- during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that they can remember.[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23547/memory memory:: Recall - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]

*'''Free recall'''- during this task a subject would be asked to study a list of words and then sometime later they will be asked to recall or write down as many words that they can remember.[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23547/memory memory:: Recall - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]

*'''Recognition'''- subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23548/memory memory:: Recognition - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]

*'''Recognition'''- subjects are asked to remember a list of words or pictures, after which point they are asked to identify the previously presented words or pictures from among a list of alternatives that were not presented in the original list. [https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23548/memory memory:: Recognition - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]

==Quote==

==Quote==

The [[spirit]] [[concept]] cannot be mechanically [[force]]d into the [[material]] memory mold. [http://mercy.urantia.org/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper48.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper48.html&line=234#mfs]

The [[spirit]] [[concept]] cannot be mechanically [[force]]d into the [[material]] memory mold. [https://mercy.urantia.org/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=https://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper48.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper48.html&line=234#mfs]

== Notes ==   

== Notes ==   

#Baddeley, A.D. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Science, 4, 417-23.

#Baddeley, A.D. (2000). The episodic buffer: a new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Science, 4, 417-23.

#Anderson, J.R. (1976). Language, Memory and Thought. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#Anderson, J.R. (1976). Language, Memory and Thought. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

#http://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/iidris/cache/an/40/4003

#https://www.med.univ-rennes1.fr/iidris/cache/an/40/4003

#http://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=76974189

#https://www.questia.com/googleScholar.qst?docId=76974189

#Some progress is being made: "Scientists identify machinery that helps make memories". Retrieved on 2008-11-02.

#Some progress is being made: "Scientists identify machinery that helps make memories". Retrieved on 2008-11-02.

#Kalat, J. W. (2001). Biological psychology (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.  

#Kalat, J. W. (2001). Biological psychology (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.  

#Smell of Roses May Improve Memory. Reuters, March 12, 2007.

#Smell of Roses May Improve Memory. Reuters, March 12, 2007.

#Noice and Noice. (2006). What Studies of Actors and Acting Can Tell Us About Memory and Cognitive Functioning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, Volume 15, Number 1, February, pp. 14-18(5).

#Noice and Noice. (2006). What Studies of Actors and Acting Can Tell Us About Memory and Cognitive Functioning. Current Directions in Psychological Science, Volume 15, Number 1, February, pp. 14-18(5).

#http://coglanglab.blogspot.com/2008/06/forgetting-what-you-havent-yet-learned.html

#https://coglanglab.blogspot.com/2008/06/forgetting-what-you-havent-yet-learned.html

#http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory

#https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion_and_memory

#http://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/UCLA-Study-Finds-that-Simple-Lifestyle-7062.aspx?RelNum=7062

#https://www.newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/UCLA-Study-Finds-that-Simple-Lifestyle-7062.aspx?RelNum=7062

#"International Longevity Center report on memory". Retrieved on 1 September, 2008.

#"International Longevity Center report on memory". Retrieved on 1 September, 2008.

#paired-associate learning - Britannica Online Encyclopedia

#paired-associate learning - Britannica Online Encyclopedia

* Cardwell, Mike & Flanagan, Cara. (2005). Psychology AS: The Complete Companion. ISBN 978-0748794638.

* Cardwell, Mike & Flanagan, Cara. (2005). Psychology AS: The Complete Companion. ISBN 978-0748794638.

* Costa-Mattioli, Mauro. (2007). [http://www.cell.com/content/article/abstract?uid=PIIS0092867407003248 eIF2α Phosphorylation Bidirectionally Regulates the Switch from Short- to Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity and Memory]. ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'', Vol 129, 195-206, [[6 April]].

* Costa-Mattioli, Mauro. (2007). [https://www.cell.com/content/article/abstract?uid=PIIS0092867407003248 eIF2α Phosphorylation Bidirectionally Regulates the Switch from Short- to Long-Term Synaptic Plasticity and Memory]. ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'', Vol 129, 195-206, [[6 April]].

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://alicekim.ca/ The Works of Endel Tulving]

* [https://alicekim.ca/ The Works of Endel Tulving]

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/memory/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/memory/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/memory.html Memory-related resources] from the [[National Institutes of Health]].

* [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/memory.html Memory-related resources] from the [[National Institutes of Health]].

* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000519BF-3128-11E8-A28583414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (February 2005 Issue) Making Memories Stick]

* [https://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=000519BF-3128-11E8-A28583414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (February 2005 Issue) Making Memories Stick]

* [http://www.pnl-nlp.org/courses/ebooks/page.php?pid=167&bid=167&pageid=3207 Aristotle's On Memory and Reminiscence]

* [https://www.pnl-nlp.org/courses/ebooks/page.php?pid=167&bid=167&pageid=3207 Aristotle's On Memory and Reminiscence]

* [http://www.worldmemorychampionship.com/ The World Memory Sports Council] Information about the World Memory Championships

* [https://www.worldmemorychampionship.com/ The World Memory Sports Council] Information about the World Memory Championships

* [http://www.learnmem.org/ Learning & Memory] - online, peer-reviewed journal with many free access articles

* [https://www.learnmem.org/ Learning & Memory] - online, peer-reviewed journal with many free access articles

* [http://www.wnyc.org/shows/radiolab/episodes/2007/06/08 WNYC - Radio Lab: Memory and Forgetting Show #304 Friday, [[June 8]], 2007]

* [https://www.wnyc.org/shows/radiolab/episodes/2007/06/08 WNYC - Radio Lab: Memory and Forgetting Show #304 Friday, [[June 8]], 2007]

* [http://www.audiblox.com/human_memory.htm Learning disabilities and memory]

* [https://www.audiblox.com/human_memory.htm Learning disabilities and memory]

* [http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Story?id=1738881&page=1 ABC News: Woman With Perfect Memory Baffles Scientists]

* [https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/Story?id=1738881&page=1 ABC News: Woman With Perfect Memory Baffles Scientists]

[[Category: Psychology]]

[[Category: Psychology]]