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'''Anthropology''' (from Greek: ἀνθρωπος, ''anthropos'', "human being"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of [[Homo (genus)|humanity]].  Anthropology has origins in the [[natural sciences]], the [[humanities]], and the [[social science]]s.<ref name="Lewis" /><ref>Wolf, Eric (1994) ''Perilous Ideas: Race, Culture, People.'' ''[[Current Anthropology]]'' 35: 1-7. p.227</ref> [[Ethnography]] is both one of its primary methods, and the text that is written as a result of the practice of anthropology and its elements.

'''Anthropology''' (from Greek: ἀνθρωπος, ''anthropos'', "human being"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of [[Homo (genus)|humanity]].  Anthropology has origins in the [[natural sciences]], the [[humanities]], and the [[social science]]s.<ref name="Lewis" /><ref>Wolf, Eric (1994) ''Perilous Ideas: Race, Culture, People.'' ''[[Current Anthropology]]'' 35: 1-7. p.227</ref> [[Ethnography]] is both one of its primary methods, and the text that is written as a result of the practice of anthropology and its elements.

==Anthropology by country==

==Anthropology by country==

===Anthropology in Britain===

===Anthropology in Britain===

[[Edward Burnett Tylor|E. B. Tylor]] (1832 October 2 – 1917 January 2) and [[James Frazer|James George Frazer]] (1854 January 1 – 1941 May 7) are generally considered the antecedents to modern sociocultural anthropology in Britain. Though Tylor undertook a field trip to [[Mexico]], both he and Frazer derived most of the material for their comparative studies through extensive readings of Classical materials (literature and history of Greece and Rome), the work of the early European folklorists, and reports from missionaries, travelers, and contemporaneous ethnologists. Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind".<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/gad/history/044stocking.pdf Stocking, George Jr. (1963) "Matthew Arnold, E. B. Tylor, and the Uses of Invention," ''American Anthropologist'', 65:783-799, 1963]</ref> Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of cultural diffusionism, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race [sic] to another."<ref>Tylor, E. B. (1865) ''Researches into the early history of mankind

[[Edward Burnett Tylor|E. B. Tylor]] (1832 October 2 – 1917 January 2) and [[James Frazer|James George Frazer]] (1854 January 1 – 1941 May 7) are generally considered the antecedents to modern sociocultural anthropology in Britain. Though Tylor undertook a field trip to [[Mexico]], both he and Frazer derived most of the material for their comparative studies through extensive readings of Classical materials (literature and history of Greece and Rome), the work of the early European folklorists, and reports from missionaries, travelers, and contemporaneous ethnologists. Tylor advocated strongly for unilinealism and a form of "uniformity of mankind".<ref>[http://www.aaanet.org/gad/history/044stocking.pdf Stocking, George Jr. (1963) "Matthew Arnold, E. B. Tylor, and the Uses of Invention," ''American Anthropologist'', 65:783-799, 1963]</ref> Tylor in particular laid the groundwork for theories of cultural diffusionism, stating that there are three ways that different groups can have similar cultural forms or technologies: "independent invention, inheritance from ancestors in a distant region, transmission from one race [sic] to another."<ref>Tylor, E. B. (1865) ''Researches into the early history of mankind

the development of civilization.'' London: John Murray.</ref> Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of '''culture''' as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."<ref>Tylor, E. B. (1871) ''Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom''. 2 vols. London, John Murray.</ref> However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural development proposed by later anthropologists. Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious feelings in human beings, proposing a theory of animism as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.). James George Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of [[The Golden Bough]], analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism worldwide.  

the development of civilization.'' London: John Murray.</ref> Tylor formulated one of the early and influential anthropological conceptions of '''culture''' as "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."<ref>Tylor, E. B. (1871) ''Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom''. 2 vols. London, John Murray.</ref> However, as Stocking notes, Tylor mainly concerned himself with describing and mapping the distribution of particular elements of culture, rather than with the larger function, and generally seemed to assume a Victorian idea of progress rather than the idea of non-directional, multilineal cultural development proposed by later anthropologists. Tylor also theorized about the origins of religious feelings in human beings, proposing a theory of animism as the earliest stage, and noting that "religion" has many components, of which he believed the most important to be belief in supernatural beings (as opposed to moral systems, cosmology, etc.). James George Frazer, a Scottish scholar with a broad knowledge of Classics, also concerned himself with religion, myth, and magic. His comparative studies, most influentially in the numerous editions of [[The Golden Bough]], analyzed similarities in religious belief and symbolism worldwide.  

====Boasian anthropology====

====Boasian anthropology====

[[Cultural anthropology]] in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects.  The field was pioneered by staff of the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] and the Smithsonian Institution's [[Bureau of American Ethnology]], men such as [[John Wesley Powell]] and [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]].  [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] (1818-1881), a lawyer from [[Rochester, New York]], became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the [[Iroquois]].  His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology.  Like other scholars of his day (such as [[Edward Tylor]]), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from ''savagery'', to ''barbarism'', to ''civilization''.  Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale.<ref>This would  be influential on the ideas of [[Karl Marx]], who dedicated [[Das Kapital]] to Morgan.</ref>

[[Cultural anthropology]] in the United States was influenced greatly by the ready availability of Native American societies as ethnographic subjects.  The field was pioneered by staff of the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] and the Smithsonian Institution's [[Bureau of American Ethnology]], men such as [[John Wesley Powell]] and [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]].  [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] (1818-1881), a lawyer from [[Rochester, New York]], became an advocate for and ethnological scholar of the [[Iroquois]].  His comparative analyses of religion, government, material culture, and especially kinship patterns proved to be influential contributions to the field of anthropology.  Like other scholars of his day (such as [[Edward Tylor]]), Morgan argued that human societies could be classified into categories of cultural evolution on a scale of progression that ranged from ''savagery'', to ''barbarism'', to ''civilization''.  Generally, Morgan used technology (such as bowmaking or pottery) as an indicator of position on this scale.<ref>This would  be influential on the ideas of [[Karl Marx]], who dedicated [[Das Kapital]] to Morgan.</ref>

Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct ''cultures,'' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the [[natural science]]s, were not possible. In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans.<ref>Stocking, George W. (1968) ''Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology''. London: The Free Press.</ref> Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and prehistoric anthropology.  

Influenced by the German tradition, Boas argued that the world was full of distinct ''cultures,'' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little "civilization" they had. He believed that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations, like those made in the [[natural science]]s, were not possible. In doing so, he fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans.<ref>Stocking, George W. (1968) ''Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the history of anthropology''. London: The Free Press.</ref> Many American anthropologists adopted his agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today. The so-called "Four Field Approach" has its origins in Boasian Anthropology, dividing the discipline in the four crucial and interrelated fields of sociocultural, biological, linguistic, and prehistoric anthropology.  

Boas used his positions at [[Columbia University]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included [[Alfred Kroeber]], [[Robert Lowie]], [[Edward Sapir]] and [[Ruth Benedict]], all of whom produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish [[linguistics]] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [[Indo-European languages]].

Boas used his positions at [[Columbia University]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] to train and develop multiple generations of students. His first generation of students included [[Alfred Kroeber]], [[Robert Lowie]], [[Edward Sapir]] and [[Ruth Benedict]], all of whom produced richly detailed studies of indigenous North American cultures. They provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages helped establish [[linguistics]] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [[Indo-European languages]].

===Anthropology in France===

===Anthropology in France===

Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology. Most commentators consider [[Marcel Mauss]] (1872-1950), nephew of the influential sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's [[Année Sociologique]] group; and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Robert Hertz]]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance: ''[[The Gift (book)|Essay on the Gift]]'' a seminal analysis of [[trade|exchange]] and [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally.<ref>Mauss, Marcel (1938) "A category of the human mind: the notion of person; the notion of self.," in M. Carrithers, S. Collins, and S. Lukes, eds. ''The Category of the Person: anthropology, philosophy, history''. Pp. 1-25. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press. Originally given as “Une categorie de l’Esprit Humain: La Notion de Personne, Celle de ‘Moi’,” for the Huxley Memorial Lecture and appeared in the ''Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'', 68.</ref>

Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions, in part because many French writers influential in anthropology have been trained or held faculty positions in sociology, philosophy, or other fields rather than in anthropology. Most commentators consider [[Marcel Mauss]] (1872-1950), nephew of the influential sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss belonged to Durkheim's [[Année Sociologique]] group; and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Robert Hertz]]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. Two works by Mauss in particular proved to have enduring relevance: ''[[The Gift (book)|Essay on the Gift]]'' a seminal analysis of [[trade|exchange]] and [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]], and his Huxley lecture on the notion of the person, the first comparative study of notions of person and selfhood cross-culturally.<ref>Mauss, Marcel (1938) "A category of the human mind: the notion of person; the notion of self.," in M. Carrithers, S. Collins, and S. Lukes, eds. ''The Category of the Person: anthropology, philosophy, history''. Pp. 1-25. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press. Originally given as “Une categorie de l’Esprit Humain: La Notion de Personne, Celle de ‘Moi’,” for the Huxley Memorial Lecture and appeared in the ''Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute'', 68.</ref>

===Other countries===

===Other countries===

Anthropology in [[Greece]] and [[Portugal]] is much influenced by British anthropology.<ref name="Langlois99" /> In [[Greece]], there was since the 19th century a science of the [[folklore]] called ''laographia'' (laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside".<ref>Geneviève Zoïa, « L'anthropologie en Grèce », Terrain, Numéro 14—L'incroyable et ses preuves (mars 1990) , [En ligne], mis en ligne le 7 octobre 2005. URL: http://terrain.revues.org/document3641.html. Consulté le 15 juin 2007. {{fr icon}}</ref> In [[Italy]], the development of [[ethnology]] and related studies did not received as much attention as other branches of learning.<ref>Grottanelli, Vinigi ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204(197712)18%3A4%3C593%3AEACAII%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z Ethnology and/or Cultural Anthropology in Italy: Traditions and Developments (and Comments and Reply)]''. Other authors: Giorgio Ausenda, Bernardo Bernardi, Ugo Bianchi, Y. Michal Bodemann, Jack Goody, Allison Jablonko, David I. Kertzer, Vittorio Lanternari, Antonio Marazzi, Roy A. Miller, Jr., Laura Laurencich Minelli, David M. Moss, Leonard W. Moss, H. R. H. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark, Diana Pinto, Pietro Scotti, Tullio Tentori. ''[[Current Anthropology]]'', Vol. 18, No. 4 (Dec., 1977), pp. 593-614</ref>

Anthropology in [[Greece]] and [[Portugal]] is much influenced by British anthropology.<ref name="Langlois99" /> In [[Greece]], there was since the 19th century a science of the [[folklore]] called ''laographia'' (laography), in the form of "a science of the interior", although theoretically weak; but the connotation of the field deeply changed after World War II, when a wave of Anglo-American anthropologists introduced a science "of the outside".<ref>Geneviève Zoïa, « L'anthropologie en Grèce », Terrain, Numéro 14—L'incroyable et ses preuves (mars 1990) , [En ligne], mis en ligne le 7 octobre 2005. URL: http://terrain.revues.org/document3641.html. Consulté le 15 juin 2007. {{fr icon}}</ref> In [[Italy]], the development of [[ethnology]] and related studies did not received as much attention as other branches of learning.<ref>Grottanelli, Vinigi ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0011-3204(197712)18%3A4%3C593%3AEACAII%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Z Ethnology and/or Cultural Anthropology in Italy: Traditions and Developments (and Comments and Reply)]''. Other authors: Giorgio Ausenda, Bernardo Bernardi, Ugo Bianchi, Y. Michal Bodemann, Jack Goody, Allison Jablonko, David I. Kertzer, Vittorio Lanternari, Antonio Marazzi, Roy A. Miller, Jr., Laura Laurencich Minelli, David M. Moss, Leonard W. Moss, H. R. H. Prince Peter of Greece and Denmark, Diana Pinto, Pietro Scotti, Tullio Tentori. ''[[Current Anthropology]]'', Vol. 18, No. 4 (Dec., 1977), pp. 593-614</ref>

===The relations with the natural sciences and the Humanities===

===The relations with the natural sciences and the Humanities===

The pressure for the "integration" of socio-cultural anthropology (inherently associated with the [[humanities]]), with "biological-physical anthropology" (inherently associated with the [[natural sciences]]), has been criticized as an inappropriate imposition of [[positivism]] (the belief that the only proper knowledge is that derived from the [[scientific method]]) upon [[cultural anthropology]].<ref name="Sacred_bundle" /> This criticism argument has been raised towards the development of [[sociobiology]] in the late 1960s (by cultural anthropologists such as [[Marshall Sahlins]]), and towards the "four field holism" of American Anthropology.<ref name="Sacred_bundle" />

The pressure for the "integration" of socio-cultural anthropology (inherently associated with the [[humanities]]), with "biological-physical anthropology" (inherently associated with the [[natural sciences]]), has been criticized as an inappropriate imposition of [[positivism]] (the belief that the only proper knowledge is that derived from the [[scientific method]]) upon [[cultural anthropology]].<ref name="Sacred_bundle" /> This criticism argument has been raised towards the development of [[sociobiology]] in the late 1960s (by cultural anthropologists such as [[Marshall Sahlins]]), and towards the "four field holism" of American Anthropology.<ref name="Sacred_bundle" />

 

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==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==