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[[File:lighterstill.jpg]][[File:Mother-and-Child-c-1905.jpg‎|right|frame]]

[[File:lighterstill.jpg]][[File:Mother-and-Child-c-1905.jpg‎|right|frame]]

*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_century 14th Century]

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/14th_century 14th Century]

==Definitions==

==Definitions==

*1: a seizure by [[legal]] [[process]]; also : the writ or precept commanding such seizure

*1: a seizure by [[legal]] [[process]]; also : the writ or precept commanding such seizure

==Description==

==Description==

'''Attachment theory''' describes the [[dynamics]] of long-term [[relationships]] between [[humans]]. Its most important [[tenet]] is that an [[infant]] needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for [[social]] and emotional development to occur normally. Attachment theory [[explains]] how much the [[parents]]' relationship with the child [[influences]] development. Attachment theory is an interdisciplinary [[study]] encompassing the fields of [[psychological]], [[evolutionary]], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology ethological theory]. Immediately after [[World War II]], [[homeless]] and [[orphaned]] children presented many difficulties, and psychiatrist and psychoanalyst [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby John Bowlby] was asked by the UN to write a pamphlet on the issue which he entitled [[maternal]] deprivation. Attachment theory grew out of his subsequent work on the issues raised.

'''Attachment theory''' describes the [[dynamics]] of long-term [[relationships]] between [[humans]]. Its most important [[tenet]] is that an [[infant]] needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for [[social]] and emotional development to occur normally. Attachment theory [[explains]] how much the [[parents]]' relationship with the child [[influences]] development. Attachment theory is an interdisciplinary [[study]] encompassing the fields of [[psychological]], [[evolutionary]], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology ethological theory]. Immediately after [[World War II]], [[homeless]] and [[orphaned]] children presented many difficulties, and psychiatrist and psychoanalyst [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bowlby John Bowlby] was asked by the UN to write a pamphlet on the issue which he entitled [[maternal]] deprivation. Attachment theory grew out of his subsequent work on the issues raised.

[[Infants]] become attached to [[individuals]] who are [[sensitive]] and responsive in [[social]] [[interactions]] with them, and who remain as [[consistent]] caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. When an infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a [[secure]] base to [[explore]] from and return to. Caregivers' responses [[lead]] to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will [[guide]] the individual's [[perceptions]], [[emotions]], [[thoughts]] and [[expectations]] in later [[relationships]]. [[Separation]] [[anxiety]] or [[grief]] following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a [[normal]] and adaptive response for an attached infant. These behaviours may have evolved because they increase the [[probability]] of [[survival]] of the child.

[[Infants]] become attached to [[individuals]] who are [[sensitive]] and responsive in [[social]] [[interactions]] with them, and who remain as [[consistent]] caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age. When an infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a [[secure]] base to [[explore]] from and return to. Caregivers' responses [[lead]] to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will [[guide]] the individual's [[perceptions]], [[emotions]], [[thoughts]] and [[expectations]] in later [[relationships]]. [[Separation]] [[anxiety]] or [[grief]] following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a [[normal]] and adaptive response for an attached infant. These behaviours may have evolved because they increase the [[probability]] of [[survival]] of the child.

Research by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology developmental psychologist] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth Mary Ainsworth] in the 1960s and 70s reinforced the basic concepts, introduced the [[concept]] of the "[[secure]] base" and developed a theory of a number of attachment patterns in infants: secure attachment, avoidant attachment and anxious attachment. A fourth pattern, disorganized attachment, was identified later.

Research by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Developmental_psychology developmental psychologist] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Ainsworth Mary Ainsworth] in the 1960s and 70s reinforced the basic concepts, introduced the [[concept]] of the "[[secure]] base" and developed a theory of a number of attachment patterns in infants: secure attachment, avoidant attachment and anxious attachment. A fourth pattern, disorganized attachment, was identified later.

In the 1980s, the theory was extended to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_in_adults attachment in adults]. Other [[interactions]] may be construed as including [[components]] of attachment behaviour; these include [[peer]] [[relationships]] at all ages, [[romantic]] and [[sexual]] [[attraction]] and responses to the care needs of [[infants]] or the sick and [[elderly]].

In the 1980s, the theory was extended to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_in_adults attachment in adults]. Other [[interactions]] may be construed as including [[components]] of attachment behaviour; these include [[peer]] [[relationships]] at all ages, [[romantic]] and [[sexual]] [[attraction]] and responses to the care needs of [[infants]] or the sick and [[elderly]].

In the early days of the [[theory]], academic psychologists criticized Bowlby, and the psychoanalytic community [[ostracised]] him for his departure from psychoanalytical tenets; however, attachment theory has since become "the [[dominant]] approach to [[understanding]] early [[social]] development, and has given rise to a great surge of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research empirical research] into the formation of children's close [[relationships]]". Later criticisms of attachment theory relate to [[temperament]], the [[complexity]] of social relationships, and the limitations of discrete patterns for classifications. Attachment theory has been significantly modified as a result of empirical research, but the concepts have become generally [[accepted]]. Attachment theory has formed the basis of new [[therapies]] and informed existing ones, and its concepts have been used in the [[formulation]] of social and childcare policies to support the early attachment relationships of [[children]].

In the early days of the [[theory]], academic psychologists criticized Bowlby, and the psychoanalytic community [[ostracised]] him for his departure from psychoanalytical tenets; however, attachment theory has since become "the [[dominant]] approach to [[understanding]] early [[social]] development, and has given rise to a great surge of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_research empirical research] into the formation of children's close [[relationships]]". Later criticisms of attachment theory relate to [[temperament]], the [[complexity]] of social relationships, and the limitations of discrete patterns for classifications. Attachment theory has been significantly modified as a result of empirical research, but the concepts have become generally [[accepted]]. Attachment theory has formed the basis of new [[therapies]] and informed existing ones, and its concepts have been used in the [[formulation]] of social and childcare policies to support the early attachment relationships of [[children]].

===Attachment===

===Attachment===

Within ''attachment theory'', '''attachment''' means an [[affectional]] [[bond]] or tie between an [[individual]] and an attachment figure (usually a caregiver). Such bonds may be [[reciprocal]] between two adults, but between a child and a caregiver these bonds are based on the child's need for [[safety]], [[security]] and [[protection]], [[paramount]] in [[infancy]] and [[childhood]]. The [[theory]] proposes that children attach to carers [[instinctively]], for the purpose of [[survival]] and, ultimately, [[genetic]] replication. The [[biological]] aim is survival and the psychological aim is [[security]]. Attachment theory is not an exhaustive [[description]] of human [[relationships]], nor is it synonymous with [[love]] and [[affection]], although these may indicate that [[bonds]] exist. In child-to-adult relationships, the child's tie is called the "attachment" and the caregiver's reciprocal equivalent is referred to as the "care-giving bond".

Within ''attachment theory'', '''attachment''' means an [[affectional]] [[bond]] or tie between an [[individual]] and an attachment figure (usually a caregiver). Such bonds may be [[reciprocal]] between two adults, but between a child and a caregiver these bonds are based on the child's need for [[safety]], [[security]] and [[protection]], [[paramount]] in [[infancy]] and [[childhood]]. The [[theory]] proposes that children attach to carers [[instinctively]], for the purpose of [[survival]] and, ultimately, [[genetic]] replication. The [[biological]] aim is survival and the psychological aim is [[security]]. Attachment theory is not an exhaustive [[description]] of human [[relationships]], nor is it synonymous with [[love]] and [[affection]], although these may indicate that [[bonds]] exist. In child-to-adult relationships, the child's tie is called the "attachment" and the caregiver's reciprocal equivalent is referred to as the "care-giving bond".

Some [[infants]] direct attachment behaviour (proximity seeking) towards more than one attachment figure almost as soon as they start to show [[discrimination]] between caregivers; most come to do so during their second year. These figures are arranged [[hierarchically]], with the principal attachment figure at the top. The set-goal of the attachment behavioural system is to maintain a bond with an accessible and available attachment figure.  "Alarm" is the term used for activation of the attachment behavioural system caused by [[fear]] of [[danger]]. "[[Anxiety]]" is the [[anticipation]] or fear of being cut off from the attachment figure. If the figure is unavailable or unresponsive, [[separation]] distress occurs. In infants, physical separation can cause [[anxiety]] and [[anger]], followed by sadness and [[despair]]. By age three or four, physical separation is no longer such a threat to the child's [[bond]] with the attachment figure. Threats to security in older children and adults arise from prolonged [[absence]], breakdowns in [[communication]], emotional unavailability or signs of [[rejection]] or [[abandonment]].

Some [[infants]] direct attachment behaviour (proximity seeking) towards more than one attachment figure almost as soon as they start to show [[discrimination]] between caregivers; most come to do so during their second year. These figures are arranged [[hierarchically]], with the principal attachment figure at the top. The set-goal of the attachment behavioural system is to maintain a bond with an accessible and available attachment figure.  "Alarm" is the term used for activation of the attachment behavioural system caused by [[fear]] of [[danger]]. "[[Anxiety]]" is the [[anticipation]] or fear of being cut off from the attachment figure. If the figure is unavailable or unresponsive, [[separation]] distress occurs. In infants, physical separation can cause [[anxiety]] and [[anger]], followed by sadness and [[despair]]. By age three or four, physical separation is no longer such a threat to the child's [[bond]] with the attachment figure. Threats to security in older children and adults arise from prolonged [[absence]], breakdowns in [[communication]], emotional unavailability or signs of [[rejection]] or [[abandonment]].

===Biology of attachment===

===Biology of attachment===

''Attachment theory'' proposes that the [[quality]] of caregiving from at least the primary carer is key to attachment [[security]] or insecurity. In addition to longitudinal studies, there has been [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysiology psychophysiological] research on the biology of attachment. [[Research]] has begun to include [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour_genetics behaviour genetics] and temperament concepts. Generally, [[temperament]] and attachment constitute separate developmental domains, but aspects of both contribute to a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal developmental outcomes. Some types of temperament may make some [[individuals]] susceptible to the [[stress]] of unpredictable or [[hostile]] relationships with caregivers in the early years. In the absence of available and responsive caregivers it appears that some children are particularly [[vulnerable]] to developing attachment disorders.

''Attachment theory'' proposes that the [[quality]] of caregiving from at least the primary carer is key to attachment [[security]] or insecurity. In addition to longitudinal studies, there has been [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychophysiology psychophysiological] research on the biology of attachment. [[Research]] has begun to include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behaviour_genetics behaviour genetics] and temperament concepts. Generally, [[temperament]] and attachment constitute separate developmental domains, but aspects of both contribute to a range of interpersonal and intrapersonal developmental outcomes. Some types of temperament may make some [[individuals]] susceptible to the [[stress]] of unpredictable or [[hostile]] relationships with caregivers in the early years. In the absence of available and responsive caregivers it appears that some children are particularly [[vulnerable]] to developing attachment disorders.

In psychophysiological research on attachment, the two main areas studied have been [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system autonomic responses], such as heart rate or respiration, and the activity of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis]. Infants' physiological responses have been measured during the Strange Situation procedure looking at individual differences in infant temperament and the extent to which attachment acts as a moderator. There is some evidence that the quality of caregiving shapes the development of the neurological systems which regulate stress.

In psychophysiological research on attachment, the two main areas studied have been [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autonomic_nervous_system autonomic responses], such as heart rate or respiration, and the activity of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothalamic%E2%80%93pituitary%E2%80%93adrenal_axis hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis]. Infants' physiological responses have been measured during the Strange Situation procedure looking at individual differences in infant temperament and the extent to which attachment acts as a moderator. There is some evidence that the quality of caregiving shapes the development of the neurological systems which regulate stress.

Another issue is the role of inherited [[genetic]] factors in shaping attachments: for example one type of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)#Genetic_polymorphism polymorphism] of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRD2 DRD2] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_receptor dopamine receptor] gene has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2A_receptor 5-HT2A] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin_receptor serotonin receptor] gene with avoidant attachment. This suggests that the [[influence]] of [[maternal]] care on attachment [[security]] is not the same for all [[children]]. One theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory]

Another issue is the role of inherited [[genetic]] factors in shaping attachments: for example one type of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)#Genetic_polymorphism polymorphism] of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRD2 DRD2] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dopamine_receptor dopamine receptor] gene has been linked to anxious attachment and another in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-HT2A_receptor 5-HT2A] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serotonin_receptor serotonin receptor] gene with avoidant attachment. This suggests that the [[influence]] of [[maternal]] care on attachment [[security]] is not the same for all [[children]]. One theoretical basis for this is that it makes biological sense for children to vary in their susceptibility to rearing influence.[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory]

==See also==

==See also==

*'''''[[Bonding]]'''''

*'''''[[Bonding]]'''''