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| − | '''Chinese philosophy''' is [[philosophy]] written in the [[China|Chinese]] [[Chinese culture|tradition]] of thought. Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the [[I Ching|Yi Jing]] (the ''Book of Changes''), an ancient compendium of [[divination]], which introduced some of the most fundamental terms of Chinese philosophy. Its age can only be estimated (its first flowering is generally considered to have been in about the 6th century BC. Antony Flew & Stephen Priest, ''A Dictionary of Philosophy''. Pan Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-330-48730-2., but it draws on an oracular tradition that goes back to [[neolithic]] times. | + | '''Chinese philosophy''' has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Ching Yi Jing] (the ''Book of Changes''), an [[ancient]] compendium of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination divination], which introduced some of the most fundamental terms of Chinese philosophy. Its age can only be estimated (its first flowering is generally considered to have been in about the 6th century BC. Antony Flew & Stephen Priest, ''A Dictionary of Philosophy''. Pan Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-330-48730-2., but it draws on an oracular [[tradition]] that goes back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic neolithic] times. |
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| − | The ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (''Dào dé jīng'', in [[pinyin]] romanisation) of [[Laozi|Lao Tzu]] (''Lǎo zǐ'') Lao Tze (Laozi) Stephen Hodge, ''Tao Te Ching'' ISBN 0-7641-2168-5 and the ''[[Analects]]'' of [[Confucius]]''Kǒng fū zǐ''; sometimes called ''Master Kong''"Confucius", Kung Fu Tz, D. C. Lau ''The Analects''Penguin Classics ISBN 0-14-044348-7 both appeared around 600 BCE, about the time that the Greek pre-Socratics were writing. | + | The ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (''Dào dé jīng'', in pinyin romanisation) of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lao_Tzu Lao Tzu] (''Lǎo zǐ'') Lao Tze (Laozi) Stephen Hodge, ''Tao Te Ching'' ISBN 0-7641-2168-5 and the ''Analects'' of Confucius'' Kǒng fū zǐ''; sometimes called ''Master Kong''"Confucius", Kung Fu Tz, D. C. Lau ''The Analects''Penguin Classics ISBN 0-14-044348-7 both appeared around 600 BCE, about the time that the Greek [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre_Socratics pre-Socratics] were writing. |
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| − | [[Confucianism]] represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His philosophy focused in the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. Confucianism, along with [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], is responsible for creating the world’s first [[meritocracy]], which holds that one's status should be determined by ability instead of ancestry, wealth, or friendships. "Confucius" [[Confucianism]] was and continue to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of [[History of China|China]] and the surrounding areas of Southeast Asia. | + | [[Confucianism]] represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His philosophy [[focused]] in the fields of [[ethics]] and [[politics]], emphasizing personal and governmental [[morality]], correctness of social [[relationships]], [[justice]], traditionalism, and [[sincerity]]. Confucianism, along with [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_%28Chinese_philosophy%29 Legalism], is responsible for creating the world’s first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by [[ability]] instead of [[ancestry]], [[wealth]], or friendships. "Confucius" [[Confucianism]] was and continue to be a major [[influence]] in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of Southeast Asia. |
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| − | Throughout history, Chinese philosophy has been molded to fit the prevailing schools of thought and circumstances in China. The Chinese schools of philosophy, except during the [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|Qin Dynasty]], can be both critical and yet relatively tolerant of one another. Even when one particular school of thought is officially adopted by the ruling bureaucracy, as in the [[Han Dynasty|Han Dynasty]], there may be no move to ban or censor other schools of thought. Despite and because of the debates and competition, they generally have cooperated and shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their own. For example, [[Neo-Confucianism]] was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the [[Song Dynasty]], with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features in the religion. | + | Throughout history, Chinese philosophy has been molded to fit the prevailing schools of [[thought]] and circumstances in China. The Chinese schools of philosophy, except during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legalism_%28Chinese_philosophy%29Qin_Dynasty Qin Dynasty], can be both critical and yet relatively tolerant of one another. Even when one particular school of thought is officially adopted by the ruling [[bureaucracy]], as in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_Dynasty Han Dynasty], there may be no move to ban or [[censor]] other schools of thought. Despite and because of the [[debates]] and [[competition]], they generally have cooperated and shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their own. For example, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo_Confucianism Neo-Confucianism] was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Dynasty Song Dynasty], with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features in the religion. |
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| − | During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of [[Western philosophy]], as steps toward modernization. By the time of the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1911, there were many calls, such as the [[May Fourth Movement]], to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate [[democracy]], [[republicanism]], and [[industrialism]] into Chinese philosophy, notably by [[Sun Yat-Sen]] (''Sūn yì xiān'', in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. [[Mao Tse-Tung]] added [[Marxism]], [[Stalinism]], and other [[Communism|communist]] thought. The government of the [[People's Republic of China]] encourage [[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]. Although, officially, it does not encourage some of the philosophical practices of [[Imperial China]], the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the [[Chinese culture]]. As in [[Japan]], philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due. | + | During the Industrial and [[Modern]] Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to [[integrate]] concepts of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_philosophy Western philosophy], as steps toward modernization. By the time of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinhai_revolution Xinhai Revolution] in 1911, there were many calls to completely abolish the old [[imperial]] institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate [[democracy]], republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Yat_Sen Sun Yat-Sen] (''Sūn yì xiān'', in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mao_Tse_Tung Mao Tse-Tung] added [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marxism Marxism] and other communist thought. The government of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People's_Republic_of_China People's Republic of China] encourage [[Socialism]] with Chinese characteristics. Although, officially, it does not encourage some of the philosophical [[practices]] of Imperial China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese [[culture]]. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of [[ideas]]. It accepts new [[concepts]], while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due. |
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| − | ''Chinese philosophy'' has spread around the world in forms such as the ''[[New Confucianism]]'' and New Age ideas (see for example [[Chinese traditional medicine]]). Many in the academic community of the West remain skeptical, and only a few assimilate Chinese philosophy into their own research, whether scientific or philosophical. However, it still carries profound influence amongst the people of [[East Asia]], and even [[Southeast Asia]]. | + | ''Chinese philosophy'' has spread around the world in forms such as the ''New Confucianism'' and [[New Age]] ideas such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_traditional_medicine Chinese traditional medicine]. Many in the [[academic]] community of the West remain [[skeptical]], and only a few assimilate Chinese philosophy into their own [[research]], whether scientific or philosophical. However, it still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and Southeast Asia.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_philosophy] |
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| − | == Brief history ==
| + | [[Category: Philosophy]] |
| − | === Early Beliefs ===
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| − | Early [[Shang Dynasty]] thought was based upon cyclicity. This notion stems from what the people of the [[Shang Dynasty]] could observe around them: day and night cycled, the seasons progressed again and again, and even the moon waxed and waned until it waxed again. Thus, this notion, which remained relevant throughout [[Chinese history]], reflects the order of nature. In juxtaposition, it also marks a fundamental distinction from [[western philosophy]], in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, [[destiny|fate]] could be manipulated by great deities , commonly translated as Gods. [[Ancestor worship]] was present and universally recognized. There was also human and animal sacrifice.
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| − | When the Shang were overthrown by the [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]], a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the "[[Mandate of Heaven]]". This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule. During this period, archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a partial shift away from the faith placed in Shang Di, with ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more worldly orientation coming to the fore.
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| − | === Hundred Schools of Thought ===
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| − | In around 500 BC, after the Zhou state weakened and China moved in to the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], the classic period of Chinese philosophy began (it is an interesting fact that this date nearly coincides with the emergence of the first [[Greek philosophers]]). This is known as the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] (諸子百家; ''zhūzǐ bǎijiā''; "various philosophers hundred schools"). Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent [[Warring States Period]], the four most influential ones were [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism|Daoism]] (often spelled "Taoism"), [[Mohism]] and [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]].
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| − | === Imperial Era ===
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| − | The short founder [[Qin Dynasty]], where Legalism was the official philosophy, [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools]]. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the [[Han Dynasty]] adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the 20th century, with the introduction [[Buddhist philosophy]] (mostly during [[Tang Dynasty]]) negotiated largely through perceived similarities with Daoism.
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| − | [[Neo-Confucianism]] was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the [[Song Dynasty]], with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features. It was later popularized during the reign of the [[Ming Dynasty]].
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| − | The respective influences of Daoism and Confucianism are often described this way: "Chinese are Confucianist during the day, while they are Daoists at night". Moreover, many Chinese [[mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarins]] were government officials in the daily life ''and'' poets (or painters) in their spare time.
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| − | === Modern Era ===
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| − | During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the [[Xinhai Revolution]] in 1911, there were many calls, such as the [[May Fourth Movement]], to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate [[democracy]], [[republicanism]], and [[industrialism]] into Chinese philosophy, notably by [[Sun Yat-Sen]] (''Sūn yì xiān'', in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. [[Mao Tse-Tung]] (''Máo zé dōng'') added [[Marxism]], [[Stalinism]], and other [[Communism|communist]] thought.
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| − | When the [[Communist Party of China]] [[Chinese Civil War|took over]] power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], were denounced as backward, and later even purged during the [[Cultural Revolution]]. Their influence on Chinese thought, however, remains. The current government of the [[People's Republic of China]] is trying to encourage a form of [[Socialism with Chinese characteristics|market socialism]].
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| − | Since the radical movement of the Cultural Revolution, the Chinese government has become much more tolerant with the practice of traditional beliefs. The [[1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] guarantees "freedom of religion" with a number of restrictions. Spiritual and philosophical institutions have been allowed to be established or re-established, as long they are not perceived to be a threat to the power of the [[Communist Party of China|CPC]]. (However, it should be noted that those organizations are heavily monitored by the state.) The influences of the past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. As in [[Japan]], philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due.
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| − | ''See also: [[Chinese nationalism]], [[Maoism]], [[Culture of the People's Republic of China]]''
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| − | == Main Schools of Thought ==
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| − | === Confucianism ===
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| − | [[Image:Confucius3.jpg|right|frame]]
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| − | Confucianism is a philosophical school developed from the teachings of the sage [[Confucius]] (Kongzi 孔子, 551 – 479 [[Common Era|BC]]), collected in the ''[[Analects of Confucius]]''. It is a system of [[morality|moral]], [[social philosophy|social]], [[politics|political]], and [[religion|religious]] thought that has had tremendous influence on Chinese history, thought, and culture down to the 21st century. Some Westerners have considered it to have been the "[[state religion]]" of [[imperial China]]. Its influence also spread to Korea and Japan.
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| − | The major Confucian concepts include ''rén'' (humanity or humaneness), ''zhèngmíng'' (rectification of names; e.g. a ruler who rules unjustly is no longer a ruler and may be dethroned), ''zhōng'' (loyalty), ''xiào'' ([[filial piety]]), and ''lǐ'' (ritual). Confucius taught both positive and negative versions of the [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]]. The concepts [[Yin and Yang]] represent two opposing forces that are permanently in conflict with each other, leading to perpetual contradiction and change. The Confucian idea of "Rid of the two ends, take the middle" is a Chinese equivalent of [[Hegel]]'s idea of "thesis, antithesis, and synthesis", which is a way of reconciling opposites, arriving at some middle ground combining the best of both.
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| − | ==== Neo-Confucianism ====
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| − | Despite Confucianism losing popularity to Taoism and Buddhism, [[Neo-Confucianism]] combined those ideas into a more [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] framework. Its concepts include ''li'' (principle, akin to [[Plato]]'s [[Theory of forms|forms]]), ''qi'' (vital or material force), ''[[taiji]]'' (the Great Ultimate), and ''xin'' (mind).
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| − | === Taoism ===
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| − | [[Image:Lao-tzu-taoism-1-.jpg|right|frame]]
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| − | Taoism (Daoism) is a philosophy and religion based on the texts the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (Dào Dé Jīng; ascribed to [[Laozi]]) and the ''[[Zhuangzi]]'' (partly ascribed to [[Zhuangzi]]). The character ''[[Tao]]'' 道 (''Dao'') literally means "path" or "way". All major Chinese philosophical schools have investigated the correct ''Way'' to go about a moral life, but in Taoism it takes on the most abstract meanings, leading this school to be named after it. It advocated nonaction (''wu wei''), the strength of weakness, spontaneity, and relativism. Although it serves as a rival to Confucianism, a school of active morality, this rivalry is compromised and given perspective by the idiom "practise Confucianism on the outside, Taoism on the inside."
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| − | But its main motto is: "If one must rule, rule young"
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| − | === Legalism ===
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| − | Legalism is a [[pragmatic]] [[political philosophy]] synthesized by [[Han Fei]]. With an essential principle like "when the epoch changed, the ways changed", it upholds the [[rule of law]] and is thus a theory of [[jurisprudence]].
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| − | A ruler should govern his subjects by the following trinity:
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| − | #Fa (法 fǎ): law or principle.
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| − | #Shu (術 shù): method, tactic, art, or statecraft.
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| − | #Shi (勢 shì): legitimacy, power, or charisma.
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| − | Legalism was the chosen philosophy of the [[Qin Dynasty]]. It was blamed for creating a [[totalitarian]] society and thereby experienced decline. Its main motto is: "Set clear strict laws, or deliver harsh punishment"
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| − | === Buddhism ===
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| − | [[Image:AvalokitaS.jpg|right|frame]]
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| − | [[Buddhism]] is a [[religion]], a [[practical philosophy]], and arguably a [[psychology]], focusing on the teachings of [[Buddha|Gautama Buddha]], who lived on the [[Indian subcontinent]] most likely from the mid-[[6th century BC|6th]] to the early [[5th century BC|5th century BCE]]. When used in a generic sense, a [[Buddha]] is generally considered to be someone who discovers the true [[Reality in Buddhism|nature of reality]].
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| − | Although Buddhism originated in [[Buddhism in India|India]], it has had the greatest impact on China. Since Chinese tradition focuses on ethics rather than [[metaphysics]], it has developed several schools distinct from the originating Indian schools. The most prominent examples with philosophical merit are [[Sanlun]], [[Tiantai]], [[Huayan]], and [[Chán]] (a.k.a. Zen). They investigate [[higher consciousness|consciousness]], levels of truth, whether reality is ultimately empty, and how [[Enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]] is to be achieved. Buddhism has a spiritual aspect that compliments the action of [[Neo-Confucianism]], with prominent Neo-Confucians advocating certain forms of meditation.
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| − | === Mohism ===
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| − | Mohism (Moism), founded by [[Mozi]], promotes [[universal love]] with the aim of mutual benefit. Everyone must love each other equally and impartially to avoid conflict and war. Mozi was strongly against Confucian ritual, instead emphasizing [[pragmatism|pragmatic]] survival through farming, [[fortification]], and [[statecraft]]. Tradition is inconsistent, and human beings need an extra-traditional guide to identify which traditions are acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize general benefit. As motivation for his theory, Mozi brought in the ''Will of Heaven'', but rather than being religious his philosophy parallels [[utilitarianism]].
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| − | ==== Logicians ====
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| − | The logicians (School of Names) were concerned with logic, paradoxes, names and actuality (similar to Confucian rectification of names). The logician [[Hui Shi]] was a friendly rival to [[Zhuangzi]], arguing against Taoism in a light-hearted and humorous manner. Another logician, [[Gongsun Long]], told the famous [[When a White Horse is Not a Horse]] dialogue. This school did not thrive because the Chinese regarded [[sophistry]] and [[dialectic]] as impractical.
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| − | == Great philosophical figures ==
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| − | * [[Confucius]], seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists.
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| − | ** [[Mencius]], Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration.
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| − | ** [[Xun Zi]], another Confucius' follower, closer to realism.
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| − | ** [[Zhu Xi]], founder of [[Neo-Confucianism]]
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| − | ** [[Wang Yangming]], most influential proponent of ''xinxue'' or "state of mind."
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| − | * [[Lao Zi]], the chief of Taoist school.
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| − | ** [[Zhuangzi]], said to be the author of the ''Zhuangzi''.
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| − | ** [[Lie Yukou|Liezi]], said to be the author of the ''[[Liezi]]''.
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| − | * [[Mozi]], the founder of Mohist school.
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| − | * [[Han Fei]], one of the theoreticians of Legalism
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| − | * [[Lin-chi]], a great Buddhist [[Ch'an]] thinker and teacher, essentially shaped what would become one of the largest schools of [[Buddhism]] ([[Rinzai school]] of [[Zen]])
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| − | == Concepts within Chinese philosophy ==
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| − | Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.
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| − | Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:
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| − | *[[Tao]] (the Way, or one's doctrine)
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| − | *[[De (Chinese)|De]] (virtue, power)
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| − | *[[Li (Confucian)|Li]] (principle)
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| − | *[[Qi]] (vital energy or material force)
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| − | *The ''[[Taiji]]'' (''Great Heavenly Axis'') forms a unity, from which two antagonistic concepts, ''[[Yin]]'' and ''[[Yang]]'' originate. The word ''Yin'' originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the gloomy, passive, female concept, whereas ''Yang'' (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, male concept. Both concepts, though antagonistic, are also complementary and the present domination of one implies the future rise of the other, as moon's phases (this is one of the meanings of the well-known Yin-Yang figures).
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| − | Among the great controversies of Chinese philosophies are:
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| − | * The relation between matter and principle
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| − | * The method of discovering truth
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| − | * Human nature
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| − | Among the commonalties of Chinese philosophies are:
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| − | * Epistemological optimism. The belief that the big questions can be answered even if the answers are not currently known.
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| − | * The tendency not to view man as separate from nature.
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| − | * The tendency not to invoke a unified and personified supernatural power. Questions about the nature and existence of [[God]] which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy have not been important in Chinese philosophies.
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| − | * The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.
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| − | * The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.
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| − | ==Comparison between Chinese and Western philosophy==
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| − | The focuses of [[Western philosophy|Western]] and Chinese philosophy are radically different, thus they have a considerable effect on mentalities of both societies. Western philosophy emphasizes [[ambition]], [[individualism]], [[rationality]], [[Power (sociology)|power]], and [[liberty]], while Chinese philosophy emphasizes [[benevolence]], [[harmony]], [[wisdom]], [[family]], and honoring one's ancestors. Chinese philosophy primarily focuses more internally, while Western philosophy focus is more external.
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| − | In many ways, the [[Western philosophy|Western]] and Chinese philosophies are the antithesis of each other. For example, [[Platonic realism|Platonism]] stressed on the [[rule of law]], and [[Confucianism]] preached a society ruled of [[ethics]]. While [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment Thinking]] calls for liberty and democracy, [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] demands unquestioned loyalty to imperial authority. While competition is essential in the ideology of [[Capitalism]], cooperation is seen as the key for harmony in the philosophy of the East. Western philosophers primarily value reason and rationality, while the Far Eastern philosophers generally emphasize meditation and wisdom. This is not to say Chinese philosophy is irrational, nor to say that Western philosophy is unwise.
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| − | Despite their many differences, it would be far from the truth that [[Western philosophy|Western]] and Chinese philosophy completely thought differently. The two philosophies explored deep into the realms of inquiry and covered similar grounds. Thus, naturally, they would have an ample number of schools that had thought similarly. For example, there were philosophers in China, such as the [[Logicians]], that made scientific rationality their chief focus, while there were philosophers in the West, such as [[Marcus Aurelius]], that saw meditation as the path to knowledge. It is just the mainstream philosophical schools that make Western and Chinese philosophy different.
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| − | == Further reading ==
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| − | * ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'' (Princeton Paperbacks), [[Feng Youlan]], tr. [[Derk Bodde]], 1983.
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| − | * ''Disputers of the Tao; Philosophical Argument in Ancient China'', A. C. Graham, 1989.
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| − | * ''Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China'', [[Arthur Waley]], 1983.
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| − | * ''Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong'', [[Herrlee Glessner Creel]], 1971.
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| − | * ''The Importance of Living'', [[Lin Yutang]], 1996.
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| − | == See also ==
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| − | *[[List of Chinese philosophers]]
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| − | *[[Culture of China]]
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| − | *[[I Ching]]
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| − | *[[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]]
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| − | *[[Chinese classic texts]]
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| − | *[[Eastern philosophy]]
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| − | *[[Chinese history]]
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| − | *[[Chinese room]]
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| − | *[[:Category:Chinese philosophers|Chinese philosophers]]
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| − | *[[Taoism]]
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| − | *[[Confucianism]]
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| − | == External links ==
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| − | * [http://www.literati-tradition.com/space.html Article "The Chinese Concept of Space"]
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| − | * [http://www.literati-tradition.com/time.html Article "The Chinese Concept of Time"]
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| − | * [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou-literature.html The Hundred Schools of Thought] in http://www.chinaknowledge.de
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| − | * [http://chinese.dsturgeon.net Chinese Text Project] - Chinese philosophy texts in classical Chinese with English and modern Chinese translations
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| − | * [http://main.chinesephilosophy.net/ Chinese Philosophical Etext Archive]
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| − | * [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comparphil-chiwes/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Chinese-Western Comparative Philosophy]
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| − | [[Category: General Reference]]
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| | [[Category: Chinese Philosophy]] | | [[Category: Chinese Philosophy]] |
Chinese philosophy has a history of several thousand years; its origins are often traced back to the Yi Jing (the Book of Changes), an ancient compendium of divination, which introduced some of the most fundamental terms of Chinese philosophy. Its age can only be estimated (its first flowering is generally considered to have been in about the 6th century BC. Antony Flew & Stephen Priest, A Dictionary of Philosophy. Pan Macmillan, 2002. ISBN 0-330-48730-2., but it draws on an oracular tradition that goes back to neolithic times.
The Tao Te Ching (Dào dé jīng, in pinyin romanisation) of Lao Tzu (Lǎo zǐ) Lao Tze (Laozi) Stephen Hodge, Tao Te Ching ISBN 0-7641-2168-5 and the Analects of Confucius Kǒng fū zǐ; sometimes called Master Kong"Confucius", Kung Fu Tz, D. C. Lau The AnalectsPenguin Classics ISBN 0-14-044348-7 both appeared around 600 BCE, about the time that the Greek pre-Socratics were writing.
Confucianism represents the collected teachings of the Chinese sage Confucius, who lived from 551 to 479 BCE. His philosophy focused in the fields of ethics and politics, emphasizing personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, traditionalism, and sincerity. Confucianism, along with Legalism, is responsible for creating the world’s first meritocracy, which holds that one's status should be determined by ability instead of ancestry, wealth, or friendships. "Confucius" Confucianism was and continue to be a major influence in Chinese culture, the state of China and the surrounding areas of Southeast Asia.
Throughout history, Chinese philosophy has been molded to fit the prevailing schools of thought and circumstances in China. The Chinese schools of philosophy, except during the Qin Dynasty, can be both critical and yet relatively tolerant of one another. Even when one particular school of thought is officially adopted by the ruling bureaucracy, as in the Han Dynasty, there may be no move to ban or censor other schools of thought. Despite and because of the debates and competition, they generally have cooperated and shared ideas, which they would usually incorporate with their own. For example, Neo-Confucianism was a revived version of old Confucian principles that appeared around the Song Dynasty, with Buddhist, Taoist, and Legalist features in the religion.
During the Industrial and Modern Ages, Chinese philosophy had also began to integrate concepts of Western philosophy, as steps toward modernization. By the time of the Xinhai Revolution in 1911, there were many calls to completely abolish the old imperial institutions and practices of China. There have been attempts to incorporate democracy, republicanism, and industrialism into Chinese philosophy, notably by Sun Yat-Sen (Sūn yì xiān, in one Mandarin form of the name) at the beginning of the 20th century. Mao Tse-Tung added Marxism and other communist thought. The government of the People's Republic of China encourage Socialism with Chinese characteristics. Although, officially, it does not encourage some of the philosophical practices of Imperial China, the influences of past are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese culture. As in Japan, philosophy in China has become a melting pot of ideas. It accepts new concepts, while attempting also to accord old beliefs their due.
Chinese philosophy has spread around the world in forms such as the New Confucianism and New Age ideas such as Chinese traditional medicine. Many in the academic community of the West remain skeptical, and only a few assimilate Chinese philosophy into their own research, whether scientific or philosophical. However, it still carries profound influence amongst the people of East Asia, and Southeast Asia.[1]
