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In biological terminology, a '''community''' is a group of interacting [[organisms]] sharing an environment, but in [[human]] communities, [[intention|intent]], [[belief]], resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the [[identity]] of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. Traditionally a "community" has been defined as a group of people living in a common location or with a common purpose regardless of their location. The word is often used to refer to a [[group]] that is organised around common values and social cohesion within a shared geographical location, generally in social units larger than a household.  

In biological terminology, a '''community''' is a group of interacting [[organisms]] sharing an environment, but in [[human]] communities, [[intention|intent]], [[belief]], resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the [[identity]] of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness. Traditionally a "community" has been defined as a group of people living in a common location or with a common purpose regardless of their location. The word is often used to refer to a [[group]] that is organised around common values and social cohesion within a shared geographical location, generally in social units larger than a household.  

==Etymology==

==Etymology==

''Communis'' comes from a combination of the Latin prefix ''com-'' (which means "together") and the word ''munis'' probably originally derived from the [[Etruscan]] word ''munis-'' (meaning "to have the charge of"). [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/4060/dictionnaire_etrusque.htm Etruscan Etymological Glossary]

''Communis'' comes from a combination of the Latin prefix ''com-'' (which means "together") and the word ''munis'' probably originally derived from the [[Etruscan]] word ''munis-'' (meaning "to have the charge of"). [https://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/4060/dictionnaire_etrusque.htm Etruscan Etymological Glossary]

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

==Perspectives from various disciplines==

==Perspectives from various disciplines==

====Individual and community====

====Individual and community====

During their growth and [[maturation]], people encounter a variety of individuals and [[experience]]s. Infants first interact with their immediate family, then with extended family. As they mature, children interact with the local community, first in school and later through work. They thus develop individual and group [[identity]] through associations that connect them to life-long community experiences.  [http://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization"]

During their growth and [[maturation]], people encounter a variety of individuals and [[experience]]s. Infants first interact with their immediate family, then with extended family. As they mature, children interact with the local community, first in school and later through work. They thus develop individual and group [[identity]] through associations that connect them to life-long community experiences.  [https://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization"]

As people grow, they learn about and form perceptions of social structures. During this progression, they form [[values]], a [[world view]], and attitudes toward the larger society. Gaining an understanding of group dynamics and how to "fit in" is part of socialization. Individuals develop interpersonal relationships and begin to make choices about whom to associate with and under what circumstances.

As people grow, they learn about and form perceptions of social structures. During this progression, they form [[values]], a [[world view]], and attitudes toward the larger society. Gaining an understanding of group dynamics and how to "fit in" is part of socialization. Individuals develop interpersonal relationships and begin to make choices about whom to associate with and under what circumstances.

If community exists, both freedom and security exist as well. The community then takes on a life of its own, as people become free enough to share and secure enough to get along. The sense of connectedness and formation of social networks comprise what has become known as social capital.

If community exists, both freedom and security exist as well. The community then takes on a life of its own, as people become free enough to share and secure enough to get along. The sense of connectedness and formation of social networks comprise what has become known as social capital.

Social capital is defined as "the collective value of all social networks and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity)."[http://www.hks.harvard.edu/saguaro/primer.htm SAGUARO SEMINAR - Civic Engagement in America] Social capital in action can be seen in groups of varying formality, including neighbours keeping an eye on each others' homes. However, as Putnam notes in ''Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community'' (2000), social capital has been falling in the United States. Putnam found that over the past 25 years, attendance at club meetings has fallen 58 percent, family dinners are down 33 percent, and having friends visit has fallen 45 percent.[http://www.bowlingalone.com/ ''Bowling Alone'' web site]

Social capital is defined as "the collective value of all social networks and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity)."[https://www.hks.harvard.edu/saguaro/primer.htm SAGUARO SEMINAR - Civic Engagement in America] Social capital in action can be seen in groups of varying formality, including neighbours keeping an eye on each others' homes. However, as Putnam notes in ''Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community'' (2000), social capital has been falling in the United States. Putnam found that over the past 25 years, attendance at club meetings has fallen 58 percent, family dinners are down 33 percent, and having friends visit has fallen 45 percent.[https://www.bowlingalone.com/ ''Bowling Alone'' web site]

The same patterns are also evident in several other western countries. Western [[culture]]s are thus said to be losing the spirit of community that once were found in [[institutions]] including churches and community centers. Sociologist Ray Oldenburg states in ''The Great Good Place'' that people need three places: 1) the [[home]], 2) the [[office]], and, 3) the community hangout or [[gathering place]]. [http://www.pps.org/info/placemakingtools/placemakers/roldenburg Ray Oldenburg]. With this philosophy in mind, many grassroots efforts are being started to create this "Third Place" in communities. They are taking form in independent bookstores, coffeehouses, local pubs, and through many innovative means to create the social capital needed to foster the sense and spirit of community. [http://usfcollab.usf.edu/PDF/socialcapital.pdf Social Capital in Tampa Bay: An Update Report].

The same patterns are also evident in several other western countries. Western [[culture]]s are thus said to be losing the spirit of community that once were found in [[institutions]] including churches and community centers. Sociologist Ray Oldenburg states in ''The Great Good Place'' that people need three places: 1) the [[home]], 2) the [[office]], and, 3) the community hangout or [[gathering place]]. [https://www.pps.org/info/placemakingtools/placemakers/roldenburg Ray Oldenburg]. With this philosophy in mind, many grassroots efforts are being started to create this "Third Place" in communities. They are taking form in independent bookstores, coffeehouses, local pubs, and through many innovative means to create the social capital needed to foster the sense and spirit of community. [https://usfcollab.usf.edu/PDF/socialcapital.pdf Social Capital in Tampa Bay: An Update Report].

===Psychology===

===Psychology===

Community development, often linked with Community Work or Community Planning, is often formally conducted by non-government organisations (NGOs),  universities or government agencies to improve the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. Less formal efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities. These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.

Community development, often linked with Community Work or Community Planning, is often formally conducted by non-government organisations (NGOs),  universities or government agencies to improve the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. Less formal efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities. These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.

Formal programs conducted by universities are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in sociology and community studies. The General Social Survey from the National Opinion Research Center at the [[University of Chicago]] and the [[Saguaro Seminar]] at the [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]] at [[Harvard University]] are examples of national community development in the United States. In The [[United Kingdom]], [[Oxford University]] has led in providing extensive research in the field through its '' Community Development Journal,'' [http://cdj.oxfordjournals.org/ Community Development Journal], used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners.

Formal programs conducted by universities are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in sociology and community studies. The General Social Survey from the National Opinion Research Center at the [[University of Chicago]] and the [[Saguaro Seminar]] at the [[John F. Kennedy School of Government]] at [[Harvard University]] are examples of national community development in the United States. In The [[United Kingdom]], [[Oxford University]] has led in providing extensive research in the field through its '' Community Development Journal,'' [https://cdj.oxfordjournals.org/ Community Development Journal], used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners.

At the intersection between community ''development'' and community ''building'' are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools.  One example of this is the program of the Asset Based Community Development Institute of [[Northwestern University]].  The institute makes available downloadable tools [http://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/abcd/kelloggabcd.htmll''Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity''] to assess community assets and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations that can help in community building.  The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood assets"— building from the inside out rather than the outside in. [http://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/abcd.html Welcome to ABCD].

At the intersection between community ''development'' and community ''building'' are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools.  One example of this is the program of the Asset Based Community Development Institute of [[Northwestern University]].  The institute makes available downloadable tools [https://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/abcd/kelloggabcd.htmll''Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity''] to assess community assets and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations that can help in community building.  The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood assets"— building from the inside out rather than the outside in. [https://www.northwestern.edu/ipr/abcd.html Welcome to ABCD].

===Community building and organizing===

===Community building and organizing===

# '''True community''': the process of deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this community.  This stage Peck believes can only be described as "glory" and reflects a deep yearning in every [[human]] [[soul]] for compassionate understanding from one's fellows.

# '''True community''': the process of deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this community.  This stage Peck believes can only be described as "glory" and reflects a deep yearning in every [[human]] [[soul]] for compassionate understanding from one's fellows.

More recently Peck remarked that building a sense of community is easy but maintaining this sense of community is difficult in the modern world. [http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC29/Peck.htm "The Joy of Community"].  Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events such as potlucks and small book clubs to larger–scale efforts such as mass festivals and construction projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors.

More recently Peck remarked that building a sense of community is easy but maintaining this sense of community is difficult in the modern world. [https://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC29/Peck.htm "The Joy of Community"].  Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events such as potlucks and small book clubs to larger–scale efforts such as mass festivals and construction projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors.

Community building that is geared toward citizen action is usually termed "community organizing." [http://www.sonoma.edu/users/w/wallsd/community-organizing.shtml  Power to the People: Thirty-five Years of Community Organizing]. In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies.  Where [[goodness|good]]-[[faith]] negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. The ARISE Detroit! coalition and the Toronto Public Space Committee are examples of activist networks committed to shielding local communities from government and corporate domination and inordinate influence.

Community building that is geared toward citizen action is usually termed "community organizing." [https://www.sonoma.edu/users/w/wallsd/community-organizing.shtml  Power to the People: Thirty-five Years of Community Organizing]. In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies.  Where [[goodness|good]]-[[faith]] negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. The ARISE Detroit! coalition and the Toronto Public Space Committee are examples of activist networks committed to shielding local communities from government and corporate domination and inordinate influence.

Community organizing is sometimes focused on more than just resolving specific issues. Organizing often means building a widely accessible [[power]] structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community. Community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group. The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and "institution-based community organizing,"  (also called "broad-based community organizing," an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or "congregation-based community organizing").

Community organizing is sometimes focused on more than just resolving specific issues. Organizing often means building a widely accessible [[power]] structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community. Community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group. The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and "institution-based community organizing,"  (also called "broad-based community organizing," an example of which is faith-based community organizing, or "congregation-based community organizing").

====Community currencies====

====Community currencies====

Some communities have developed their own "Local Exchange Trading Systems" (LETS) Local Exchange Trading Systems were first developed by Michael Linton, in Courtenay, BC, ''see'' [http://www.gmlets.u-net.com/explore/home.html "LETSystems - new money"] and  [[local currencies]], such as the Ithaca Hours system, to encourage economic growth and an enhanced sense of community. Community Currencies have recently proven valuable in meeting the needs of people living in various South American nations, particularly Argentina, that recently suffered as a result of the collapse of the Argentinian national currency.[http://www.strohalm.net/en/site.php| Social Trade Organisation] Conversely, at least one community, The Los Angeles Skills Pool, [http://www.geocities.com/theskillspool/index.html Los Angeles Skills Pool] is built around the sharing of services without the use of ''any'' currency.

Some communities have developed their own "Local Exchange Trading Systems" (LETS) Local Exchange Trading Systems were first developed by Michael Linton, in Courtenay, BC, ''see'' [https://www.gmlets.u-net.com/explore/home.html "LETSystems - new money"] and  [[local currencies]], such as the Ithaca Hours system, to encourage economic growth and an enhanced sense of community. Community Currencies have recently proven valuable in meeting the needs of people living in various South American nations, particularly Argentina, that recently suffered as a result of the collapse of the Argentinian national currency.[https://www.strohalm.net/en/site.php| Social Trade Organisation] Conversely, at least one community, The Los Angeles Skills Pool, [https://www.geocities.com/theskillspool/index.html Los Angeles Skills Pool] is built around the sharing of services without the use of ''any'' currency.

===Community service===

===Community service===

==Special nature of human community==

==Special nature of human community==

Definitions of community as "organisms inhabiting a common environment and interacting with one another". [http://www.science.org.au/nova/010/010glo.htm Nova: Science in the News]. while scientifically accurate, do not convey the richness, diversity and complexity of human communities.  Their classification, likewise is almost never precise.  Untidy as it may be, community is vital for humans. [[Scott Peck]] expresses this in the following way: "There can be no vulnerability without risk; there can be no community without vulnerability; there can be no peace, and ultimately no life, without community."

Definitions of community as "organisms inhabiting a common environment and interacting with one another". [https://www.science.org.au/nova/010/010glo.htm Nova: Science in the News]. while scientifically accurate, do not convey the richness, diversity and complexity of human communities.  Their classification, likewise is almost never precise.  Untidy as it may be, community is vital for humans. [[Scott Peck]] expresses this in the following way: "There can be no vulnerability without risk; there can be no community without vulnerability; there can be no peace, and ultimately no life, without community."

==See also==

==See also==

* [[Emile Durkheim|Durkheim, Emile]]. 1950 [1895] The Rules of Sociological Method.  Translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller.  New York:  The Free Press.

* [[Emile Durkheim|Durkheim, Emile]]. 1950 [1895] The Rules of Sociological Method.  Translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller.  New York:  The Free Press.

* Cox, F.,  J. Erlich, J. Rothman, and J. Tropman. 1970. ''Strategies of Community Organization: A Book of Readings.'' Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers.

* Cox, F.,  J. Erlich, J. Rothman, and J. Tropman. 1970. ''Strategies of Community Organization: A Book of Readings.'' Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers.

* Effland, R. 1998. [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/model_complex.html The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations] Mesa Community College.

* Effland, R. 1998. [https://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/model_complex.html The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations] Mesa Community College.

* Giddens, A. 1999. “Risk and Responsibility” ''Modern Law Review'' 62(1): 1-10.

* Giddens, A. 1999. “Risk and Responsibility” ''Modern Law Review'' 62(1): 1-10.

* Lenski, G. 1974. ''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.'' New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc.

* Lenski, G. 1974. ''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.'' New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc.

* McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory." American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.

* McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory." American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.

* [[Jean-Luc Nancy|Nancy, Jean-Luc]]. ''La Communauté désœuvrée'' (philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-[[subject (philosophy)|subjective]] concept of it).

* [[Jean-Luc Nancy|Nancy, Jean-Luc]]. ''La Communauté désœuvrée'' (philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-[[subject (philosophy)|subjective]] concept of it).

* Newman, D. 2005. ''Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life,'' [http://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization"] Pine Forge Press. Retrieved: 2006-08-05.

* Newman, D. 2005. ''Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life,'' [https://www.pineforge.com/upm-data/9006_Chapter_5.pdf Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization"] Pine Forge Press. Retrieved: 2006-08-05.

* [[M. Scott Peck|Peck, M.S.]] 1987. ''The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace.''  New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84858-9

* [[M. Scott Peck|Peck, M.S.]] 1987. ''The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace.''  New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84858-9

* Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. ''American Journal of Community Psychology, 18'', 83-115.

* Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. ''American Journal of Community Psychology, 18'', 83-115.

* [[Seymour B. Sarason|Sarason, S.B.]] 1974. ''The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology.'' San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

* [[Seymour B. Sarason|Sarason, S.B.]] 1974. ''The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology.'' San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

:— 1986. "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center." ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14, 405-407.

:— 1986. "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center." ''Journal of Community Psychology'', 14, 405-407.

* Smith, M. K. 2001. [http://www.infed.org/community/community.htm  Community]. Encyclopedia of informal education. Last updated: [[January 28]], [[2005]]. Retrieved: 2006-07-15.

* Smith, M. K. 2001. [https://www.infed.org/community/community.htm  Community]. Encyclopedia of informal education. Last updated: [[January 28]], [[2005]]. Retrieved: 2006-07-15.

* Tönnies, F. 1887. ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft,'' Leipzig: Fues's Verlag, 2nd ed. 1912, 8th edition, Leipzig: Buske, 1935; translated in 1957 as ''Community and Society.'' ISBN 0-88738-750-0

* Tönnies, F. 1887. ''Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft,'' Leipzig: Fues's Verlag, 2nd ed. 1912, 8th edition, Leipzig: Buske, 1935; translated in 1957 as ''Community and Society.'' ISBN 0-88738-750-0

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://www.newpantagruel.com/issues/2.3/community.php "Community", an article] in ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia''

* [https://www.newpantagruel.com/issues/2.3/community.php "Community", an article] in ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia''

* [http://www.infed.org/community/community.htm "Community", an article] in ''Encyclopedia of Informal Education''

* [https://www.infed.org/community/community.htm "Community", an article] in ''Encyclopedia of Informal Education''

* [http://www.subdivided.net ''Subdivided''] A documentary film about community featuring Robert Putnam

* [https://www.subdivided.net ''Subdivided''] A documentary film about community featuring Robert Putnam

* [http://thenetworkgarden.com/weblog/2008/03/online-communit.html ''Online Community Building: Three Critical Ingredients''] An article about building online communities

* [https://thenetworkgarden.com/weblog/2008/03/online-communit.html ''Online Community Building: Three Critical Ingredients''] An article about building online communities

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Sociology]]

[[Category: Sociology]]