Changes

'''Culture''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cultura'' stemming from ''colere'', meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. In some contexts, a frequent usage of the term ''culture'' is to indicate artifacts in music, literature, painting and sculpture, theater and film.[[Raymond Williams]] (1976) ''[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society]]''. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87-93 and 236-8. Although some people identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in [[high culture]], [[low culture]], [[folk culture]], or [[popular culture]]) <ref>John Befrger ''Ways of Seeing'', anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For the, culture thus includes technology, art, science, as well as  moral systems.

[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]][[Image:GrazCulturalCapital-large.jpg|right|frame]]

[[Image:Mehmooni2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Farhang'', culture, has always been the focal point of Iranian [[civilization]]. Painting of Persian women musicians from ''[[Hasht Behesht|Hasht-Behesht Palace]]'' ("Palace of the 8 heavens").]]

'''Culture''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cultura'' stemming from ''colere'', meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. In some contexts, a frequent usage of the term ''culture'' is to indicate artifacts in music, literature, painting and sculpture, theater and film.[[Raymond Williams]] (1976) ''[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society]]''. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87-93 and 236-8. Although some people identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in [[high culture]], [[low culture]], [[folk culture]], or [[popular culture]]) John Befrger ''Ways of Seeing'', anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For the, culture thus includes technology, art, science, as well as  moral systems.

[[Image:Ägyptischer Maler um 1400 v. Chr. 001.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Ancient Egypt]]ian [[art]].]]

[[anthropology|Anthropologists]] most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences [[symbol]]ically. This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, [[primatology|primatologists]] have identified aspects of culture among humankind's closest relatives in the animal kingdom.<ref>Goodall, J. 1986. ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.''</ref>  As a rule, [[archaeology|archaeologists]] focus on material culture (the material remains of human activity), whereas [[social anthropology|social anthropologists]] focus on social interactions, statuses and institutions, and [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] focus on norms and values.  This division of labor reflects the different conditions under which different anthropologists have worked, and the practical need to focus research.  It does not necessarily reflect a theory of culture that conceptually distinguishes between the material, the social, and the normative, nor does it reflect three competing theories of culture.

== Ways of looking at culture ==

== Ways of looking at culture ==

=== Culture as civilization ===

=== Culture as civilization ===

Many people today have an idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts it with "[[nature]]." According to this way of thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis|the Leavisites]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world”Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html] ''Culture and Anarchy.''] Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "... culture being a pursuit of our total [[perfection]] by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world".<ref name=anarchy />

Many people today have an idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts it with "[[nature]]." According to this way of thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis|the Leavisites]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world”Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [https://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html] ''Culture and Anarchy.''] Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "... culture being a pursuit of our total [[perfection]] by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world".<ref name=anarchy />

 

In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite|élite]] activities such as [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called "[[high culture]]", namely the culture of the [[Ruling class|ruling]] [[social group]], Bakhtin 1981, p.4 to distinguish them from [[mass culture]] or [[popular culture]].

In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite|élite]] activities such as [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called "[[high culture]]", namely the culture of the [[Ruling class|ruling]] [[social group]], Bakhtin 1981, p.4 to distinguish them from [[mass culture]] or [[popular culture]].

===Culture as a stabilizing mechanism===

===Culture as a stabilizing mechanism===

Modern cultural theory also considers the possibility that (a) culture itself is a product of stabilization tendencies inherent in evolutionary pressures toward self-similarity and self-cognition of societies as wholes, or [[tribalism]]s. See [[Stephen Wolfram]]'s ''[[A new kind of science]]'' on iterated simple algorithms from genetic unfolding, from which the concept of culture as an operating mechanism can be developed, Wolfram, S., ''[http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline A New Kind of Science]''. and [[Richard Dawkins]]' ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' for discussion of genetic and [[memetic]] stability over time, through [[negative feedback]] mechanisms.<ref>Dawkins, R. 1982. ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]''

Modern cultural theory also considers the possibility that (a) culture itself is a product of stabilization tendencies inherent in evolutionary pressures toward self-similarity and self-cognition of societies as wholes, or [[tribalism]]s. See [[Stephen Wolfram]]'s ''[[A new kind of science]]'' on iterated simple algorithms from genetic unfolding, from which the concept of culture as an operating mechanism can be developed, Wolfram, S., ''[https://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline A New Kind of Science]''. and [[Richard Dawkins]]' ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' for discussion of genetic and [[memetic]] stability over time, through [[negative feedback]] mechanisms.<ref>Dawkins, R. 1982. ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]''

===Culture and evolutionary psychology===

===Culture and evolutionary psychology===

==Cultures by region==

==Cultures by region==

Many regional cultures have been influenced by contact with others, such as by [[colonization]], [[trade]], [[migration]], [[mass media]] and [[religion]].  

Many regional cultures have been influenced by contact with others, such as by [[colonization]], [[trade]], [[migration]], [[mass media]] and [[religion]].  

Though of many varied origins, African culture, especially Sub-Saharan African culture has been shaped by European colonialism, and, especially in North Africa, by [[Arab]] and [[Islamic]] culture.

Though of many varied origins, African culture, especially Sub-Saharan African culture has been shaped by European colonialism, and, especially in North Africa, by [[Arab]] and [[Islamic]] culture.

;Americas

;Americas

The culture of the [[Americas]] has been strongly influenced by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|peoples that inhabitated the continents]] before Europeans arrived; people from Africa (the United States especially has a large African-American population, most of whom are descended from former slaves), and the immigration of Europeans, especially Spanish, English, French, Portuguese, German, Irish, Italian and Dutch.  

The culture of the [[Americas]] has been strongly influenced by [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|peoples that inhabitated the continents]] before Europeans arrived; people from Africa (the United States especially has a large African-American population, most of whom are descended from former slaves), and the immigration of Europeans, especially Spanish, English, French, Portuguese, German, Irish, Italian and Dutch.  

== Belief systems ==

== Belief systems ==

Religion and other belief systems are often integral to a culture. Religion, from the Latin ''religare,'' meaning "to bind fast", is a feature of cultures throughout human history. The ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion'' defines religion in the following way:

Religion and other belief systems are often integral to a culture. Religion, from the Latin ''religare,'' meaning "to bind fast", is a feature of cultures throughout human history. The ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion'' defines religion in the following way:

Judaism and the Baha'i faiths are usually minority religions among the nations but still have made distinctive contributions to the cultures of the nations and regions. Of Judaism, people of note include [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Henry Kissinger]] and musicians/performers like [[Paula Abdul]], [[Sammy Davis, Jr.]], and [[Bob Dylan]]. Of the Bahá'í faith, consider the [[Bahá'í House of Worship]] as well as musicians like [[Dizzy Gillespie]] and thinkers like [[Alain LeRoy Locke]], [[Frederick Mayer]] and [[Richard St. Barbe Baker]].

Judaism and the Baha'i faiths are usually minority religions among the nations but still have made distinctive contributions to the cultures of the nations and regions. Of Judaism, people of note include [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Henry Kissinger]] and musicians/performers like [[Paula Abdul]], [[Sammy Davis, Jr.]], and [[Bob Dylan]]. Of the Bahá'í faith, consider the [[Bahá'í House of Worship]] as well as musicians like [[Dizzy Gillespie]] and thinkers like [[Alain LeRoy Locke]], [[Frederick Mayer]] and [[Richard St. Barbe Baker]].

The mainstream [[anthropological]] view of ‘[[culture]]’ implies that we most people experience a strong resistance when reminded that there is an animal as well as a spiritual aspect to human nature.<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07">Jonathan Benthall ''[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x Animal liberation and rights]'' [[Anthropology Today]] Volume 23 Issue 2 Page 1 - April 2007</ref>

The mainstream [[anthropological]] view of ‘[[culture]]’ implies that we most people experience a strong resistance when reminded that there is an animal as well as a spiritual aspect to human nature.<ref name="AnthropologyTodayApr07">Jonathan Benthall ''[https://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1467-8322.2007.00494.x Animal liberation and rights]'' [[Anthropology Today]] Volume 23 Issue 2 Page 1 - April 2007</ref>

===Eastern religion and philosophy===

===Eastern religion and philosophy===

Philosophy and religion are often closely interwoven in Eastern thought.  Many Asian religious and philosophical traditions originated in India and China and spread across Asia through [[cultural diffusion]] and the migration of peoples.  [[Hinduism]] is the wellspring of [[Buddhism]], the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] branch of which spread north and eastwards from India into Tibet, China, Mongolia, Japan and Korea and south from China into Vietnam. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism spread throughout [[Southeast Asia]], including Sri Lanka, parts of southwest China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand.   

Philosophy and religion are often closely interwoven in Eastern thought.  Many Asian religious and philosophical traditions originated in India and China and spread across Asia through [[cultural diffusion]] and the migration of peoples.  [[Hinduism]] is the wellspring of [[Buddhism]], the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] branch of which spread north and eastwards from India into Tibet, China, Mongolia, Japan and Korea and south from China into Vietnam. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism spread throughout [[Southeast Asia]], including Sri Lanka, parts of southwest China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand.   

===Folk religions===

===Folk religions===

Folk religions practiced by tribal groups are common in Asia, Africa and the Americas.  Their influence can be considerable; may pervade the culture and even become the state religion, as with [[Shintoism]].  Like the other major religions, folk religion answers human needs for reassurance in times of trouble, healing, averting misfortune and providing [[rituals]] that address the major passages and transitions in human life.

Folk religions practiced by tribal groups are common in Asia, Africa and the Americas.  Their influence can be considerable; may pervade the culture and even become the state religion, as with [[Shintoism]].  Like the other major religions, folk religion answers human needs for reassurance in times of trouble, healing, averting misfortune and providing [[rituals]] that address the major passages and transitions in human life.

===The "American Dream"===

===The "American Dream"===

The [[American Dream]] is a belief, held by many in the United States, that through hard work, courage, and self-determination, regardless of [[social class]], a person can [[social mobility|gain a better life]]. Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream,'' p. 1. This notion is rooted in the belief that the United States is a "[[city upon a hill]], a light unto the nations," [[Ronald Reagan]]. [http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm] "Final Radio Address to the Nation"]. which were values held by many early European settlers and maintained by subsequent generations.

The [[American Dream]] is a belief, held by many in the United States, that through hard work, courage, and self-determination, regardless of [[social class]], a person can [[social mobility|gain a better life]]. Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream,'' p. 1. This notion is rooted in the belief that the United States is a "[[city upon a hill]], a light unto the nations," [[Ronald Reagan]]. [https://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm] "Final Radio Address to the Nation"]. which were values held by many early European settlers and maintained by subsequent generations.

This concept is mirrored in other cultures, such as in the case of ''the Great [[Australia]]n Dream,'' although this refers more closely to [[home ownership]] by the same means.

This concept is mirrored in other cultures, such as in the case of ''the Great [[Australia]]n Dream,'' although this refers more closely to [[home ownership]] by the same means.

==Cultural change==

==Cultural change==

Cultures, by [[predisposition]], both embrace and resist [[change]], depending on culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One gender might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in [[western culture]]s.  Thus there are both dynamic influences that encourage acceptance of new things, and conservative forces that resist change.     

Cultures, by [[predisposition]], both embrace and resist [[change]], depending on culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One gender might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in [[western culture]]s.  Thus there are both dynamic influences that encourage acceptance of new things, and conservative forces that resist change.     

#forces at work within a society

#forces at work within a society

#contact between societies

#contact between societies

#changes in the natural environment.<ref>O'Neil, D. 2006. [http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_2.htm "Processes of Change"].

#changes in the natural environment.<ref>O'Neil, D. 2006. [https://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_2.htm "Processes of Change"].

Cultural change can come about due to the environment, to inventions (and other internal influences), and to contact with other cultures. For example, the end of the last [[ice age]] helped lead to the invention of [[agriculture]], which in its turn brought about many cultural innovations.

Cultural change can come about due to the environment, to inventions (and other internal influences), and to contact with other cultures. For example, the end of the last [[ice age]] helped lead to the invention of [[agriculture]], which in its turn brought about many cultural innovations.

"[[Acculturation]]" has different meanings, but in this context refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such has happened to certain [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of [[colonization]]. Related processes on an individual level include [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and [[transculturation]].

"[[Acculturation]]" has different meanings, but in this context refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such has happened to certain [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of [[colonization]]. Related processes on an individual level include [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and [[transculturation]].

[[Cultural invention]] has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period", driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the [[World population|human population]] explosion, among other factors. The world's population now doubles in less than 40 years.<ref name = Overview>O'Neil, D. 2006. [http://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_1.htm "Overview"].  

[[Cultural invention]] has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period", driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the [[World population|human population]] explosion, among other factors. The world's population now doubles in less than 40 years.<ref name = Overview>O'Neil, D. 2006. [https://anthro.palomar.edu/change/change_1.htm "Overview"].  

Culture change is complex and has far-ranging effects. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that a [[holistic]] approach to the study of cultures and their environments is needed to understand all of the various aspects of change.  Human existence may best be looked at as a "multifaceted whole." Only from this vantage can one grasp the realities of culture change.

Culture change is complex and has far-ranging effects. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that a [[holistic]] approach to the study of cultures and their environments is needed to understand all of the various aspects of change.  Human existence may best be looked at as a "multifaceted whole." Only from this vantage can one grasp the realities of culture change.

==References==

==References==

* Ankerl,Guy: ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.'' Geneva: INUPRESS, 2000, ISBN 2881550045  

* Ankerl,Guy: ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.'' Geneva: INUPRESS, 2000, ISBN 2881550045  

* Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html ''Culture and Anarchy.''] New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.

* Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [https://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html ''Culture and Anarchy.''] New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.

*[[Bakhtin]], M. M. (1981) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JKZztxqdIpgC The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays]''. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press.

*[[Bakhtin]], M. M. (1981) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=JKZztxqdIpgC The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays]''. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press.

* Barzilai, Gad. 2003. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legahkjkjl Identities.'' University of Michigan Press.

* Barzilai, Gad. 2003. ''Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legahkjkjl Identities.'' University of Michigan Press.

* Boritt, Gabor S. 1994. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream''. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06445-6.

* Boritt, Gabor S. 1994. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream''. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-06445-6.

* Cohen, Anthony P. 1985. ''The Symbolic Construction of Community.''  Routledge: New York,

* Cohen, Anthony P. 1985. ''The Symbolic Construction of Community.''  Routledge: New York,

* Dawkiins, R. 1982. ''[[The Extended Phenotype|The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene.]]'' Paperback ed., 1999. Oxford Paperbacks.  ISBN 978-0-19-288051-2  

* Dawkiins, R. 1982. ''[[The Extended Phenotype|The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene.]]'' Paperback ed., 1999. Oxford Paperbacks.  ISBN 978-0-19-288051-2  

* Forsberg, A. [http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~aforsber/ccsf/culture_defined.html Definitions of culture] [[CCSF]] Cultural Geography course notes. Retrieved: 2006-06-29.

* Forsberg, A. [https://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~aforsber/ccsf/culture_defined.html Definitions of culture] [[CCSF]] Cultural Geography course notes. Retrieved: 2006-06-29.

* Geertz, Clifford. 1973. ''The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays''. New York. ISBN 978-0-465-09719-7.

* Geertz, Clifford. 1973. ''The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays''. New York. ISBN 978-0-465-09719-7.

:— 1957. "Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example", ''American Anthropologist'', Vol. 59, No. 1.

:— 1957. "Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example", ''American Anthropologist'', Vol. 59, No. 1.

* Kim, Uichol  (2001). "Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis." In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), ''Handbook of culture and psychology.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press

* Kim, Uichol  (2001). "Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis." In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), ''Handbook of culture and psychology.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press

* Middleton, R. 1990. ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-15275-9.

* Middleton, R. 1990. ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 978-0-335-15275-9.

* Rhoads, Kelton. 2006. [http://www.workingpsychology.com/download_folder/Culture_And_Influence.pdf ''The Culture Variable in the Influence Equation.'']  

* Rhoads, Kelton. 2006. [https://www.workingpsychology.com/download_folder/Culture_And_Influence.pdf ''The Culture Variable in the Influence Equation.'']  

* Tylor, E.B. 1974. ''Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom.'' New York: Gordon Press. First published in 1871. ISBN 978-0-87968-091-6  

* Tylor, E.B. 1974. ''Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom.'' New York: Gordon Press. First published in 1871. ISBN 978-0-87968-091-6  

* O'Neil, D. 2006. [http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm Cultural Anthropology Tutorials], Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.

* O'Neil, D. 2006. [https://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm Cultural Anthropology Tutorials], Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.

* [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan, Ronald]]. [http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm "Final Radio Address to the Nation"], [[January 14]], [[1989]]. Retrieved [[June 3]], [[2006]].

* [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan, Ronald]]. [https://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm "Final Radio Address to the Nation"], [[January 14]], [[1989]]. Retrieved [[June 3]], [[2006]].

* Reese, W.L. 1980. ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought.'' New Jersey U.S., Sussex, U.K: Humanities Press.

* Reese, W.L. 1980. ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought.'' New Jersey U.S., Sussex, U.K: Humanities Press.

* UNESCO. 2002. [http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity], issued on [[International Mother Language Day]], [[February 21]], [[2002]]. Retrieved: 2006-06-23.

* UNESCO. 2002. [https://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity], issued on [[International Mother Language Day]], [[February 21]], [[2002]]. Retrieved: 2006-06-23.

* White, L. 1949. ''The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization.'' New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

* White, L. 1949. ''The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization.'' New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

* Wilson, Edward O. (1998). ''[[Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]].'' Vintage: New York. ISBN 978-0-679-76867-8.

* Wilson, Edward O. (1998). ''[[Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]].'' Vintage: New York. ISBN 978-0-679-76867-8.

* Wolfram, Stephen. 2002 ''[http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline A New Kind of Science].'' Wolfram Media, Inc. ISBN 978-1-57955-008-0

* Wolfram, Stephen. 2002 ''[https://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline A New Kind of Science].'' Wolfram Media, Inc. ISBN 978-1-57955-008-0

==See also==

==See also==

* [[List of basic culture topics]]

* [[List of basic culture topics]]

* [[Cultural bias]] - [[Cultural imperialism]] - [[Ethnocentrism]]

* [[Cultural bias]] - [[Cultural imperialism]] - [[Ethnocentrism]]

==External links==

==External links==

*[http://courses.ed.asu.edu/margolis/spf301/definitions_of_culture.html] Detailed article on defining culture]

*[https://courses.ed.asu.edu/margolis/spf301/definitions_of_culture.html] Detailed article on defining culture]

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-73] ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] "culture" and "civilization" in modern times

* [https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-73] ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] "culture" and "civilization" in modern times

* [http://www.everyculture.com/  Countries and their Cultures]

* [https://www.everyculture.com/  Countries and their Cultures]

* [http://global-culture.org/ Global Culture] Essays on globalization, migration and their impact on global culture

* [https://global-culture.org/ Global Culture] Essays on globalization, migration and their impact on global culture

* [http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cfsi-icse/cil-cai/home-en.asp Centre for Intercultural Learning]

* [https://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cfsi-icse/cil-cai/home-en.asp Centre for Intercultural Learning]

* [http://www.wsu.edu/gened/learn-modules/top_culture/culture-index.html] What is Culture? - Washington State University]

* [https://www.wsu.edu/gened/learn-modules/top_culture/culture-index.html] What is Culture? - Washington State University]

* [http://www.observacionesfilosoficas.net/ Revista Observaciones Filosóficas]  

* [https://www.observacionesfilosoficas.net/ Revista Observaciones Filosóficas]  

* [http://www.defineculture.com Define Culture] - List of definitions of culture from people around the world.

* [https://www.defineculture.com Define Culture] - List of definitions of culture from people around the world.

* [http://www.monthlyreview.org/299pare.htm Reflections on the Politics of Culture] by [[Michael Parenti]]

* [https://www.monthlyreview.org/299pare.htm Reflections on the Politics of Culture] by [[Michael Parenti]]

*[http://www.chitralekha.org/  Mukul Dey Archives, Chitralekha, Santiniketan INDIA]

*[https://www.chitralekha.org/  Mukul Dey Archives, Chitralekha, Santiniketan INDIA]

*[http://www.chitralekha.org/mukuldey-archives.htm]  Foreign Influence on Indian Culture (c. 600 BC to AD 320) by Manjari Ukil]

*[https://www.chitralekha.org/mukuldey-archives.htm]  Foreign Influence on Indian Culture (c. 600 BC to AD 320) by Manjari Ukil]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]