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'''Culture''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cultura'' stemming from ''colere'', meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. In some contexts, a frequent usage of the term ''culture'' is to indicate artifacts in music, literature, painting and sculpture, theater and film.<ref>[[Raymond Williams]] (1976) ''[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society]]''. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87-93 and 236-8.</ref> Although some people identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in [[high culture]], [[low culture]], [[folk culture]], or [[popular culture]]) <ref>John Befrger ''Ways of Seeing''</ref>{{Verify source|date=August 2007}}, anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For the, culture thus includes technology, art, science, as well as  moral systems.

'''Culture''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cultura'' stemming from ''colere'', meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. In some contexts, a frequent usage of the term ''culture'' is to indicate artifacts in music, literature, painting and sculpture, theater and film.<ref>[[Raymond Williams]] (1976) ''[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society]]''. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87-93 and 236-8. Although some people identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in [[high culture]], [[low culture]], [[folk culture]], or [[popular culture]]) <ref>John Befrger ''Ways of Seeing'', anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For the, culture thus includes technology, art, science, as well as  moral systems.

[[anthropology|Anthropologists]] most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences [[symbol]]ically. This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, [[primatology|primatologists]] have identified aspects of culture among humankind's closest relatives in the animal kingdom.<ref>Goodall, J. 1986. ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.''</ref>  As a rule, [[archaeology|archaeologists]] focus on material culture (the material remains of human activity), whereas [[social anthropology|social anthropologists]] focus on social interactions, statuses and institutions, and [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] focus on norms and values.  This division of labor reflects the different conditions under which different anthropologists have worked, and the practical need to focus research.  It does not necessarily reflect a theory of culture that conceptually distinguishes between the material, the social, and the normative, nor does it reflect three competing theories of culture.

[[anthropology|Anthropologists]] most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences [[symbol]]ically. This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, [[primatology|primatologists]] have identified aspects of culture among humankind's closest relatives in the animal kingdom.<ref>Goodall, J. 1986. ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.''</ref>  As a rule, [[archaeology|archaeologists]] focus on material culture (the material remains of human activity), whereas [[social anthropology|social anthropologists]] focus on social interactions, statuses and institutions, and [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] focus on norms and values.  This division of labor reflects the different conditions under which different anthropologists have worked, and the practical need to focus research.  It does not necessarily reflect a theory of culture that conceptually distinguishes between the material, the social, and the normative, nor does it reflect three competing theories of culture.

== Ways of looking at culture ==

== Ways of looking at culture ==

=== Culture as civilization ===

=== Culture as civilization ===

Many people today have an idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts it with "[[nature]]." According to this way of thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis|the Leavisites]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world”<ref name=anarchy>Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html ''Culture and Anarchy.'']</ref> Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "... culture being a pursuit of our total [[perfection]] by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world".<ref name=anarchy />

Many people today have an idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts it with "[[nature]]." According to this way of thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis|the Leavisites]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world”Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html] ''Culture and Anarchy.''] Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "... culture being a pursuit of our total [[perfection]] by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world".<ref name=anarchy />

[[Image:Degas- La classe de danse 1874.jpg|left|150px|thumb|An artifact of "high culture": a painting by [[Edgar Degas]].]]

[[Image:Degas- La classe de danse 1874.jpg|left|150px|thumb|An artifact of "high culture": a painting by [[Edgar Degas]].]]

In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite|élite]] activities such as [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called "[[high culture]]", namely the culture of the [[Ruling class|ruling]] [[social group]],<ref>Bakhtin 1981, p.4</ref> to distinguish them from [[mass culture]] or [[popular culture]].

In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite|élite]] activities such as [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called "[[high culture]]", namely the culture of the [[Ruling class|ruling]] [[social group]], Bakhtin 1981, p.4 to distinguish them from [[mass culture]] or [[popular culture]].

From the 19th century onwards, some social [[critics]] have accepted this contrast between the highest and lowest culture, but have stressed the refinement and of sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. On this account, [[folk music]] (as produced by working-class people) honestly expresses a natural way of life, and classical music seems superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrays [[Indigenous peoples]] as '[[noble savage]]s' living [[authenticity (philosophy)|authentic]] unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly-stratified [[capitalism|capitalist]] systems of [[Western culture|the West]].

From the 19th century onwards, some social [[critics]] have accepted this contrast between the highest and lowest culture, but have stressed the refinement and of sophistication of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. On this account, [[folk music]] (as produced by working-class people) honestly expresses a natural way of life, and classical music seems superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrays [[Indigenous peoples]] as '[[noble savage]]s' living [[authenticity (philosophy)|authentic]] unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly-stratified [[capitalism|capitalist]] systems of [[Western culture|the West]].

*6. Develop ethical and legal sensitivity

*6. Develop ethical and legal sensitivity

Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (Cummings & Worley, 2005, p. 491).

Changes in culture can lead to tensions between organizational and individual interests, which can result in ethical and legal problems for practitioners. This is particularly relevant for changes in employee integrity, control, equitable treatment and job security (Cummings & Worley, 2005, p. 491).

==Cultures by region==

==Cultures by region==