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'''Exceptionalism''' is the [[perception]] that a country, [[society]], institution, [[movement]], or time period is "exceptional" (i.e., unusual or extraordinary) in some way and thus does not conform to normal rules or general principles. Used in this sense, the term [[reflects]] a [[belief]] formed by lived [[experience]], [[ideology]], [[Frame of reference|perceptual frames]], or [[perspectives]] influenced by [[knowledge]] (or lack thereof) of historical or comparative circumstances.

'''Exceptionalism''' is the [[perception]] that a country, [[society]], institution, [[movement]], or time period is "exceptional" (i.e., unusual or extraordinary) in some way and thus does not conform to normal rules or general principles. Used in this sense, the term [[reflects]] a [[belief]] formed by lived [[experience]], [[ideology]], [[Frame of reference|perceptual frames]], or [[perspectives]] influenced by [[knowledge]] (or lack thereof) of historical or comparative circumstances.

==History==

==History==

The German romantic philosopher-historians, especially [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder Herder] (1744-1803) and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte Fichte] (1762-1814), dwelt on the theme of [[uniqueness]] in the late [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_century 18th Century]. They de-emphasized the [[political]] [[state]] and instead emphasized the uniqueness of the ''Volk'', comprising the whole people, their [[languages]] and [[traditions]]. Each nation, considered as a cultural [[entity]] with its own distinctive [[history]], possessed a "national spirit", or "[[soul]] of the people" (in German: Volksgeist). This [[idea]] had a strong influence in the [[growth]] of nationalism in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th-century 19th Century] European lands — especially ones ruled by élites from somewhere else.[1][2]

The German romantic philosopher-historians, especially [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder Herder] (1744-1803) and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte Fichte] (1762-1814), dwelt on the theme of [[uniqueness]] in the late [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_century 18th Century]. They de-emphasized the [[political]] [[state]] and instead emphasized the uniqueness of the ''Volk'', comprising the whole people, their [[languages]] and [[traditions]]. Each nation, considered as a cultural [[entity]] with its own distinctive [[history]], possessed a "national spirit", or "[[soul]] of the people" (in German: Volksgeist). This [[idea]] had a strong influence in the [[growth]] of nationalism in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th-century 19th Century] European lands — especially ones ruled by élites from somewhere else.[1][2]

Many countries of all kinds, including the modern United States, Britain at the height of the British Empire, Imperial Japan, Iran, Venezuela, Israel, the USSR, France and Germany have claimed exceptionality. Historians have added many other cases, including historic empires such as Ancient [[Rome]], the Ottoman Empire and China, along with a wide range of minor kingdoms in [[history]].[3] In each case, proponents have presented a basis as to why the country is exceptional compared to other countries, drawing upon circumstance, [[Culture|cultural]] background and [[Milieu|mythos]], and self-perceived national aims.[4]

Many countries of all kinds, including the modern United States, Britain at the height of the British Empire, Imperial Japan, Iran, Venezuela, Israel, the USSR, France and Germany have claimed exceptionality. Historians have added many other cases, including historic empires such as Ancient [[Rome]], the Ottoman Empire and China, along with a wide range of minor kingdoms in [[history]].[3] In each case, proponents have presented a basis as to why the country is exceptional compared to other countries, drawing upon circumstance, [[Culture|cultural]] background and [[Milieu|mythos]], and self-perceived national aims.[4]

Commentators often use the term "exceptionalism" to describe surprising developments in [[economic]] [[progress]], such as the economic growth of post-[[World War II]] Western Europe [1] or the ability of Sweden to generate small-[[business]] growth while yet maintaining high levels of taxation[5]

Commentators often use the term "exceptionalism" to describe surprising developments in [[economic]] [[progress]], such as the economic growth of post-[[World War II]] Western Europe [1] or the ability of Sweden to generate small-[[business]] growth while yet maintaining high levels of taxation[5]

Exceptionalism can represent an error [[analogous]] to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/historicism historicism] in assuming that only peculiarities are relevant to [[analysis]], while overlooking [[meaningful]] comparisons. "[W]hat is seemingly exceptional in one country may be found in other countries[6] As indigenous peoples explore their respective cultural heritages, their seeking to be separately classified or newly-understood may be a form of exceptionalism.[7][7]

Exceptionalism can represent an error [[analogous]] to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/historicism historicism] in assuming that only peculiarities are relevant to [[analysis]], while overlooking [[meaningful]] comparisons. "[W]hat is seemingly exceptional in one country may be found in other countries[6] As indigenous peoples explore their respective cultural heritages, their seeking to be separately classified or newly-understood may be a form of exceptionalism.[7][7]

In [[ideologically]]-driven [[debates]], a [[group]] may assert exceptionalism, with or without the term, in order to exaggerate the [[appearance]] of [[difference]], perhaps to create an atmosphere permissive of a wider latitude of [[action]], and to avoid recognition of similarities that would reduce perceived justifications. If unwarranted, this represents an example of special pleading, a form of spurious argumentation that ignores relevant bases for meaningful comparison.

In [[ideologically]]-driven [[debates]], a [[group]] may assert exceptionalism, with or without the term, in order to exaggerate the [[appearance]] of [[difference]], perhaps to create an atmosphere permissive of a wider latitude of [[action]], and to avoid recognition of similarities that would reduce perceived justifications. If unwarranted, this represents an example of special pleading, a form of spurious argumentation that ignores relevant bases for meaningful comparison.

Groups likewise may be accused of exceptionalism, perhaps for avoiding normal terms of [[analysis]].[8] The term may be a marker for an implication that a point of view is widely misunderstood, such as the notion that Islamic jihad is misunderstood.[9]

Groups likewise may be accused of exceptionalism, perhaps for avoiding normal terms of [[analysis]].[8] The term may be a marker for an implication that a point of view is widely misunderstood, such as the notion that Islamic jihad is misunderstood.[9]

In editorial language, the term "exceptionalism" may be a marker for "the extent to which a region or group is justifiably or factually distinct."[14]

In editorial language, the term "exceptionalism" may be a marker for "the extent to which a region or group is justifiably or factually distinct."[14]

==See also==

==See also==

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_exceptionalism American Exceptionalism] (United States of America)

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_exceptionalism American Exceptionalism] (United States of America)

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_exceptionalism European Exceptionalism]

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_exceptionalism European Exceptionalism]

==Notes==

==Notes==

# Royal J. Schmidt, "Cultural Nationalism in Herder," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jun., 1956), pp. 407-417 in JSTOR

# Royal J. Schmidt, "Cultural Nationalism in Herder," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jun., 1956), pp. 407-417 in JSTOR

# Hans Kohn, "The Paradox of Fichte's Nationalism," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 10, No. 3 (Jun., 1949), pp. 319-343 in JSTOR

# Hans Kohn, "The Paradox of Fichte's Nationalism," Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 10, No. 3 (Jun., 1949), pp. 319-343 in JSTOR

# See Christopher K. Chase-Dunn, Thomas D. Hall, and E. Susan Manning, "Rise and Fall: East-West Synchronicity and Indic Exceptionalism Reexamined," Social Science History, Volume 24, Number 4, Winter 2000, pp. 727-754 in Project Muse

# See Christopher K. Chase-Dunn, Thomas D. Hall, and E. Susan Manning, "Rise and Fall: East-West Synchronicity and Indic Exceptionalism Reexamined," Social Science History, Volume 24, Number 4, Winter 2000, pp. 727-754 in Project Muse

# http://academic2.american.edu/~dfagel/Markets&democracyfukuyama.html

# https://academic2.american.edu/~dfagel/Markets&democracyfukuyama.html

# http://www.stefangeens.com/000220.html

# https://www.stefangeens.com/000220.html

# http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/Matsuda.html

# https://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/Matsuda.html

# a b http://www.english.upenn.edu/CFP/archive/2003-10/0254.html

# a b https://www.english.upenn.edu/CFP/archive/2003-10/0254.html

# http://www.el-comandante.com/except.htm

# https://www.el-comandante.com/except.htm

# http://www.iiie.net/Articles/InterpretException.html

# https://www.iiie.net/Articles/InterpretException.html

# http://www.thebody.com/hanssens/exceptionalism.html

# https://www.thebody.com/hanssens/exceptionalism.html

# http://www.actupny.org/alert/Media-Irresponsibility.html

# https://www.actupny.org/alert/Media-Irresponsibility.html

# http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20001101facomment932/peter-j-spiro/the-new-sovereigntists-american-exceptionalism-and-its-false-prophets.html

# https://www.foreignaffairs.org/20001101facomment932/peter-j-spiro/the-new-sovereigntists-american-exceptionalism-and-its-false-prophets.html

# http://wendy.seltzer.org/blog/archives/000053.html

# https://wendy.seltzer.org/blog/archives/000053.html

# http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2002/05/16/stories/2002051600391000.htm

# https://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2002/05/16/stories/2002051600391000.htm

==References==

==References==

*George M. Fredrickson. "From Exceptionalism to Variability: Recent Developments in Cross-National Comparative History," Journal of American History, Vol. 82, No. 2 (Sep., 1995), pp. 587-604 in JSTOR

*George M. Fredrickson. "From Exceptionalism to Variability: Recent Developments in Cross-National Comparative History," Journal of American History, Vol. 82, No. 2 (Sep., 1995), pp. 587-604 in JSTOR