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A '''genius''' (plural genii or geniuses,[1] adjective ingenious) is a [[person]], a [[body]] of [[work]], or a singular achievement of surpassing excellence. More than just [[originality]], [[creativity]], or [[intelligence]], genius is associated with achievement of [[insight]] which has [[transformational]] [[power]]. A work of genius fundamentally alters the [[expectations]] of its [[audience]]. Genius may be generalized, or be particular to a discrete field such as sports, statesmanship, [[science]], or [[The Arts|art]]. In Ancient [[Rome]], the genius was the guiding or "tutelary" [[spirit]] of a person, or even of an entire gens, the plural of which was 'genii'[9].
A '''genius''' (plural genii or geniuses,[1] adjective ingenious) is a [[person]], a [[body]] of [[work]], or a singular achievement of surpassing excellence. More than just [[originality]], [[creativity]], or [[intelligence]], genius is associated with achievement of [[insight]] which has [[transformational]] [[power]]. A work of genius fundamentally alters the [[expectations]] of its [[audience]]. Genius may be generalized, or be particular to a discrete field such as sports, statesmanship, [[science]], or [[The Arts|art]]. In Ancient [[Rome]], the genius was the guiding or "tutelary" [[spirit]] of a person, or even of an entire gens, the plural of which was 'genii'[9].
Although difficult to [[quantify]], genius refers to a level of aptitude, capability or achievement which exceeds even that of most other exceptional contemporaries in the same field. The normal distribution suggests that the term might be applied to [[phenomena]] ranked in the top .1%, i.e. three standard deviations or greater, among [[peers]]. In psychology, the inventor of the first IQ tests, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Binet Alfred Binet], applied the term, to the top .1% of those tested.[2][3] This usage of the term is closely related to the general [[concept]] of [[intelligence]].
Although difficult to [[quantify]], genius refers to a level of aptitude, capability or achievement which exceeds even that of most other exceptional contemporaries in the same field. The normal distribution suggests that the term might be applied to [[phenomena]] ranked in the top .1%, i.e. three standard deviations or greater, among [[peers]]. In psychology, the inventor of the first IQ tests, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Binet Alfred Binet], applied the term, to the top .1% of those tested.[2][3] This usage of the term is closely related to the general [[concept]] of [[intelligence]].
<center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Genius''''', follow [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Genius '''''this link'''''].</center>
<center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Genius''''', follow [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Genius '''''this link'''''].</center>
==Historical development==
==Historical development==
Intelligence testing was invented by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton Francis Galton] and James McKeen Cattell, who had advocated reaction [[time]] and sensory acuity as [[measures]] of "neurophysiological efficiency" and that latter concept as a measure of [[intelligence]].[5] By intelligence they meant a heritable trait, which was a general intelligence factor. Galton is regarded as the founder of psychometrics (among other kinds of metrics, such as fingerprinting), He was a fan of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin Charles Darwin], who showed that traits must be inherited before [[evolution]] can occur. [[Reasoning]] that eminence is caused by genetic traits he did a [[study]] of their heritability, publishing it in 1869 as ''Hereditary Genius''. His method was to count and assess the eminent relatives of eminent men. He found that the number of eminent relatives is greater with closer degree of kinship, indicating to him (since then debated) that a genetic trait is present in an eminent line of descent that is not present in other lines.
Intelligence testing was invented by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Galton Francis Galton] and James McKeen Cattell, who had advocated reaction [[time]] and sensory acuity as [[measures]] of "neurophysiological efficiency" and that latter concept as a measure of [[intelligence]].[5] By intelligence they meant a heritable trait, which was a general intelligence factor. Galton is regarded as the founder of psychometrics (among other kinds of metrics, such as fingerprinting), He was a fan of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin Charles Darwin], who showed that traits must be inherited before [[evolution]] can occur. [[Reasoning]] that eminence is caused by genetic traits he did a [[study]] of their heritability, publishing it in 1869 as ''Hereditary Genius''. His method was to count and assess the eminent relatives of eminent men. He found that the number of eminent relatives is greater with closer degree of kinship, indicating to him (since then debated) that a genetic trait is present in an eminent line of descent that is not present in other lines.
Galton's theories were elaborated from the work of two early 19th-century pioneers in statistics: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Gauss Karl Friedrich Gauss] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet Adolphe Quetelet]. Gauss discovered the normal distribution (bell-shaped curve): given a large number of measurements of the same variable under the same conditions, they vary at [[random]] from a most frequent [[value]], the "average", to two least frequent values at maximum [[differences]] greater and less than the most frequent value. Quetelet [[discovered]] that the bell-shaped curve applied to social [[statistics]] gathered by the French government in the course of its normal processes on large numbers of people passing through the courts and the military. His initial work in criminology led him to observe "the greater the number of [[individuals]] observed the more do peculiarities become effaced ...." This ideal from which the peculiarities were effaced became "the average man."[6]
Galton's theories were elaborated from the work of two early 19th-century pioneers in statistics: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Friedrich_Gauss Karl Friedrich Gauss] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolphe_Quetelet Adolphe Quetelet]. Gauss discovered the normal distribution (bell-shaped curve): given a large number of measurements of the same variable under the same conditions, they vary at [[random]] from a most frequent [[value]], the "average", to two least frequent values at maximum [[differences]] greater and less than the most frequent value. Quetelet [[discovered]] that the bell-shaped curve applied to social [[statistics]] gathered by the French government in the course of its normal processes on large numbers of people passing through the courts and the military. His initial work in criminology led him to observe "the greater the number of [[individuals]] observed the more do peculiarities become effaced ...." This ideal from which the peculiarities were effaced became "the average man."[6]
Galton, himself a child prodigy, was inspired by Quetelet to define the average man as "an entire normal scheme"; that is, if one combines the normal curves of every measurable human characteristic, one will in [[theory]] perceive a syndrome straddled by "the average man" and flanked by persons that are different. In contrast to Quetelet, Galton's average man was not statistical, but was theoretical only. There was no measure of general averageness, only a large number of very specific averages. Setting out to [[discover]] a general measure of the average, Galton looked at educational [[statistics]] and found bell-curves in test results of all sorts; initially in [[mathematics]] grades for the final honors examination and in entrance examination scores for Sandhurst.
Galton, himself a child prodigy, was inspired by Quetelet to define the average man as "an entire normal scheme"; that is, if one combines the normal curves of every measurable human characteristic, one will in [[theory]] perceive a syndrome straddled by "the average man" and flanked by persons that are different. In contrast to Quetelet, Galton's average man was not statistical, but was theoretical only. There was no measure of general averageness, only a large number of very specific averages. Setting out to [[discover]] a general measure of the average, Galton looked at educational [[statistics]] and found bell-curves in test results of all sorts; initially in [[mathematics]] grades for the final honors examination and in entrance examination scores for Sandhurst.
# Bernstein (1998), page 163.
# Bernstein (1998), page 163.
# Bernstein (1998), page 164.
# Bernstein (1998), page 164.
# genius. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved May 17, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/genius
# genius. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved May 17, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: https://dictionary.reference.com/browse/genius
# ""genius." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.". 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036408. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
# ""genius." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.". 2007. https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036408. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
# "Children Above 180 IQ: Standford-Binet Origin and Development, by Leta Stetter Hollingworth". 1975. http://www.amazon.com/Children-Above-180-Standford-Binet-Development/dp/0405064675/ref=sr_1_1/104-4831253-4979138?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189627625&sr=8-1. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
# "Children Above 180 IQ: Standford-Binet Origin and Development, by Leta Stetter Hollingworth". 1975. https://www.amazon.com/Children-Above-180-Standford-Binet-Development/dp/0405064675/ref=sr_1_1/104-4831253-4979138?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1189627625&sr=8-1. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
# "Statistical Distribution of Childhood IQ Scores, by John Scoville". http://web.archive.org/web/20070809102122/http://sweb.uky.edu/~jcscov0/ratioiq.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
# "Statistical Distribution of Childhood IQ Scores, by John Scoville". https://web.archive.org/web/20070809102122/https://sweb.uky.edu/~jcscov0/ratioiq.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-12.
# See S.J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (2d ed. 1996) at 56.
# See S.J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man (2d ed. 1996) at 56.
# Howard Caygill, Kant Dictionary (ISBN 0-631-17535-0).
# Howard Caygill, Kant Dictionary (ISBN 0-631-17535-0).
* Francis Galton. Hereditary Genius.
* Francis Galton. Hereditary Genius.
==External links==
==External links==
* Damjanovic, Stevan M. (2002). [http://www.cerebrals.org/genius.htm "The Genius Hall"]. The Cerebrals Society. http://www.cerebrals.org/genius.htm. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
* Damjanovic, Stevan M. (2002). [https://www.cerebrals.org/genius.htm "The Genius Hall"]. The Cerebrals Society. https://www.cerebrals.org/genius.htm. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
* Wilson, Tracy V. (1998-2009). [http://people.howstuffworks.com/genius.htm "How Geniuses Work"]. HowStuffWorks.com. http://people.howstuffworks.com/genius.htm. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
* Wilson, Tracy V. (1998-2009). [https://people.howstuffworks.com/genius.htm "How Geniuses Work"]. HowStuffWorks.com. https://people.howstuffworks.com/genius.htm. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
* [http://www.cse.emory.edu/sciencenet/mismeasure/genius/intro.html Emory University 'ScienceNet'] about 'genius.'
* [https://www.cse.emory.edu/sciencenet/mismeasure/genius/intro.html Emory University 'ScienceNet'] about 'genius.'
[[Category: Psychology]]
[[Category: Psychology]]