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'''Islamic philosophy''' (الفلسفة الإسلامية) is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between [[philosophy]] ([[reason]]) and  the religious teachings of [[Islam]] ([[faith]]).

'''Islamic philosophy''' (الفلسفة الإسلامية) is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between [[philosophy]] ([[reason]]) and  the religious teachings of [[Islam]] ([[faith]]).

==Definition==

==Definition==

The attempt to fuse religion and philosophy is difficult because there are no clear preconditions. Philosophers typically hold that one must accept the possibility of truth from any source and follow the argument wherever it leads.  On the other hand, classical religious believers have a set of religious principles that they hold to be unchallengeable fact.  Given these divergent goals and views, some hold that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of [[Islam]], which is believed to be a [[Revelation|revealed religion]] by its adherents. In this view, all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail.

The attempt to fuse religion and philosophy is difficult because there are no clear preconditions. Philosophers typically hold that one must accept the possibility of truth from any source and follow the argument wherever it leads.  On the other hand, classical religious believers have a set of religious principles that they hold to be unchallengeable fact.  Given these divergent goals and views, some hold that one cannot simultaneously be a philosopher and a true adherent of [[Islam]], which is believed to be a [[Revelation|revealed religion]] by its adherents. In this view, all attempts at synthesis ultimately fail.

===Jewish philosophy in the Arab world in the classical period===

===Jewish philosophy in the Arab world in the classical period===

The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of [[Saadia Gaon]] ([[892]]-[[942]]), ''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth|Emunot ve-Deot]]'', "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ''[[ex nihilo]]'', just as the [[Bible]] attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter.

The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of [[Saadia Gaon]] ([[892]]-[[942]]), ''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth|Emunot ve-Deot]]'', "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ''[[ex nihilo]]'', just as the [[Bible]] attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter.

Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Ghazali]] found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the [[Kalam (islamic term)|Kalam]] give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in [[Judah ha-Levi]]'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament.  

Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Ghazali]] found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v.). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the [[Kalam (islamic term)|Kalam]] give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. iii. and iv.) Aristotelianism finds no favor in [[Judah ha-Levi]]'s eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament.  

[[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (or Ibn Roshd or Averroës), the contemporary of [[Maimonides]], closed the first great philosophical era of the Muslims. The boldness of this great commentator of Aristotle aroused the full fury of the orthodox, who, in their zeal, attacked all philosophers indiscriminately, and had all philosophical writings committed to the flames. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of [[Ibn Bajjah]] and [[Ibn Tufail]], who only follow the teachings of [[Ibn Sina]] and [[Al-Farabi]]. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world&mdash;hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. His ideas on the separation of philosophy and religion, further developed by the [[Averroism|Averroist]] school of philosophy, were later influential in the development of modern [[secularism]].<ref>Abdel Wahab El Messeri. [http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm Episode 21: Ibn Rushd], ''Everything you wanted to know about Islam but were afraid to ask'', ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref><ref>Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_n2_v18/ai_18627295/pg_13 The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt], ''Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ)''.</ref> Ibn Rushd is thus regarded as the founding father of [[secularism|secular thought]] in [[Western Europe]].<ref>Majid Fakhry (2001). ''Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence''. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.</ref>

[[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] (or Ibn Roshd or Averroës), the contemporary of [[Maimonides]], closed the first great philosophical era of the Muslims. The boldness of this great commentator of Aristotle aroused the full fury of the orthodox, who, in their zeal, attacked all philosophers indiscriminately, and had all philosophical writings committed to the flames. The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of [[Ibn Bajjah]] and [[Ibn Tufail]], who only follow the teachings of [[Ibn Sina]] and [[Al-Farabi]]. Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world&mdash;hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. His ideas on the separation of philosophy and religion, further developed by the [[Averroism|Averroist]] school of philosophy, were later influential in the development of modern [[secularism]].<ref>Abdel Wahab El Messeri. [https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/tvtk/ch21.htm Episode 21: Ibn Rushd], ''Everything you wanted to know about Islam but were afraid to ask'', ''Philosophia Islamica''.</ref><ref>Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). [https://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2501/is_n2_v18/ai_18627295/pg_13 The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt], ''Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ)''.</ref> Ibn Rushd is thus regarded as the founding father of [[secularism|secular thought]] in [[Western Europe]].<ref>Majid Fakhry (2001). ''Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence''. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.</ref>

But while [[Al-Farabi]], [[Ibn Sina]], and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ''ex nihilo''" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared&mdash;in order to make concessions to the orthodox&mdash; but also a necessity.  

But while [[Al-Farabi]], [[Ibn Sina]], and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ''ex nihilo''" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared&mdash;in order to make concessions to the orthodox&mdash; but also a necessity.  

=== Social philosophy ===

=== Social philosophy ===

[[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406), in his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (the introduction to a seven volume analysis of [[universal history]]), advanced [[social philosophy]] in formulating theories of [[social cohesion]] and [[social conflict]].

[[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406), in his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (the introduction to a seven volume analysis of [[universal history]]), advanced [[social philosophy]] in formulating theories of [[social cohesion]] and [[social conflict]].

== Modern Islamic philosophy ==

== Modern Islamic philosophy ==

 

The tradition of Islamic Philosophy is still very much alive today despite the belief in many Western circles that this tradition ceased after the golden ages of [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi|Suhrawardi]]’s ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'' (Illumination Philosophy) or, at the latest, [[Mulla Sadra]]’s ''Hikmat-e-Mota’aliye'' or Transcendent (Exalted) Philosophy. Another unavoidable name is [[Iqbal|Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] who reshaped and revitalized Islamic philosophy amongst the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent in the early 20th century[https://www.allamaiqbal.com/]. Beside his [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] poetical work, [[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]] [https://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/] is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam.

The tradition of Islamic Philosophy is still very much alive today despite the belief in many Western circles that this tradition ceased after the golden ages of [[Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi|Suhrawardi]]’s ''Hikmat al-Ishraq'' (Illumination Philosophy) or, at the latest, [[Mulla Sadra]]’s ''Hikmat-e-Mota’aliye'' or Transcendent (Exalted) Philosophy. Another unavoidable name is [[Iqbal|Allama Muhammad Iqbal]] who reshaped and revitalized Islamic philosophy amongst the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent in the early 20th century[http://www.allamaiqbal.com/]. Beside his [[Urdu]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] poetical work, [[The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam]] [http://www.allamaiqbal.com/works/prose/english/reconstruction/] is a milestone in the modern political philosophy of Islam.

In contemporary Islamic Lands, the teaching of ''hikmat'' or ''[[hikmah]]'' has continued and flourished.

In contemporary Islamic Lands, the teaching of ''hikmat'' or ''[[hikmah]]'' has continued and flourished.

*In [[Malaysia]], [[Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas]] is a prominent metaphysical thinker.;

*In [[Malaysia]], [[Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas]] is a prominent metaphysical thinker.;

*One of the prominent Islamic thinkers of the twenty first century is [[Abd'allah ibn Zubair]], author of Muktassar Falsafa (The Parables of Sophism) first published in 1977 with the aide of Professor Hamid Mahmud, [[Maulana Maududi]] and Major Bashiruddin.;

*One of the prominent Islamic thinkers of the twenty first century is [[Abd'allah ibn Zubair]], author of Muktassar Falsafa (The Parables of Sophism) first published in 1977 with the aide of Professor Hamid Mahmud, [[Maulana Maududi]] and Major Bashiruddin.;

== See also ==

== See also ==

*[[Islamic science]]

*[[Islamic science]]

*[[Modern Islamic philosophy]]

*[[Modern Islamic philosophy]]

== Further reading ==

== Further reading ==

# {{cite book

# History of Islamic Philosophy, by Henry Corbin, ISBN 0-710-30416-1

|title=History of Islamic Philosophy

|isbn=0-710-30416-1

# ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' (Routledge History of World Philosophies) by [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] and Oliver Leaman [ed.]

# ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' (Routledge History of World Philosophies) by [[Seyyed Hossein Nasr]] and Oliver Leaman [ed.]

# ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' by [[Majid Fahkry]]

# ''History of Islamic Philosophy'' by [[Majid Fahkry]]

# ''Islamic Philosophy'' by [[Oliver Leaman]] http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057

# ''Islamic Philosophy'' by [[Oliver Leaman]] https://www.rep.routledge.com/article/H057

# ''The Study of Islamic Philosophy'' by Ibrahim Bayyumi Madkour

# ''The Study of Islamic Philosophy'' by Ibrahim Bayyumi Madkour

# ''[[Falsafatuna]] (Our Philosophy) by [[Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr]]

# ''[[Falsafatuna]] (Our Philosophy) by [[Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr]]

==External links==

==External links==

*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/pd/index.html Dictionary of Islamic Philosophical Terms]

*[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/pd/index.html Dictionary of Islamic Philosophical Terms]

*[http://majalla.org/souaiaia/ethics/dictionary/index.htm Islamic Ethics and Philosophy Dictionary]

*[https://majalla.org/souaiaia/ethics/dictionary/index.htm Islamic Ethics and Philosophy Dictionary]

*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/nasr-ip1.htm The meaning and concept of philosophy in Islam] by [[Hossein Nasr]]

*[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/nasr-ip1.htm The meaning and concept of philosophy in Islam] by [[Hossein Nasr]]

*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ Islamic Philosophy Online]

*[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ Islamic Philosophy Online]

*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/hpi/index.htm History of Philosophy in Islam] by T. J. De Boer(1903)

*[https://www.sacred-texts.com/isl/hpi/index.htm History of Philosophy in Islam] by T. J. De Boer(1903)

*[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/study-philosophy.htm The Study of Islamic Philosophy]   

*[https://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/study-philosophy.htm The Study of Islamic Philosophy]   

*[http://www.islamredefined.com History of Islamic Philosophy - The Parables of Sophism - Abd'allah ibn Zubair]

*[https://www.islamredefined.com History of Islamic Philosophy - The Parables of Sophism - Abd'allah ibn Zubair]

*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep.htm Islamic Philosophy From the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]

*[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep.htm Islamic Philosophy From the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Islamic Philosophy]]

[[Category: Islamic Philosophy]]