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A '''language''' is a [[system]] of arbitrary symbols and the rules used to manipulate them. '''Language''' can also refer to the use of such systems as a general [[phenomenon]]. Though commonly used as a means of communication among people, human language is only one instance of this phenomenon. This article concerns the properties of language in general. For information specifically on the use of language by humans see the main article on [[natural language]].
A '''language''' is a [[system]] of arbitrary symbols and the rules used to manipulate them. '''Language''' can also refer to the use of such systems as a general [[phenomenon]]. Though commonly used as a means of communication among people, human language is only one instance of this phenomenon. This article concerns the properties of language in general. For information specifically on the use of language by humans see the main article on [[natural language]].
Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a [[grammar]], or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively inexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them.
Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a [[grammar]], or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively inexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them.
Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''{{lang|es|nada}}'' itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean "nothing". That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] or [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] speakers, ''{{lang|hr|nada}}'' means "hope".
Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''nada'' itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean "nothing". That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] or [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] speakers, ''nada'' means "hope".
However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent (see [[Onomatopoeia]]), but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it.
However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent (see [[Onomatopoeia]]), but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it.
== Do animals use language? ==
== Do animals use language? ==
The term "[[animal language]]s" is often used for nonhuman languages. Linguists do not consider these to be language, but describe them as [[animal communication]], because such communication is fundamentally different in its underlying principles from true language, which has been found in humans only.
The term "[[animal language]]s" is often used for nonhuman languages. Linguists do not consider these to be language, but describe them as [[animal communication]], because such communication is fundamentally different in its underlying principles from true language, which has been found in humans only.
== Formal languages ==
== Formal languages ==
Mathematics and [[computer science]] use artificial entities called formal languages (including [[programming language]]s and [[markup language]]s, and some that are more theoretical in nature). These often take the form of [[character string]]s, produced by some combination of [[formal grammar]] and semantics of arbitrary complexity.
Mathematics and [[computer science]] use artificial entities called formal languages (including [[programming language]]s and [[markup language]]s, and some that are more theoretical in nature). These often take the form of [[character string]]s, produced by some combination of [[formal grammar]] and semantics of arbitrary complexity.
== Programming languages ==
== Programming languages ==
A programming language is an artificial language that can be used to control the behavior of a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages, like human languages, are defined through the use of syntactic and semantic rules, to determine structure and meaning respectively.
A programming language is an artificial language that can be used to control the behavior of a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages, like human languages, are defined through the use of syntactic and semantic rules, to determine structure and meaning respectively.
Programming languages are used to facilitate communication about the task of organizing and manipulating information, and to express algorithms precisely. Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms; sometimes the term "computer language" is used for more limited artificial languages.
Programming languages are used to facilitate communication about the task of organizing and manipulating information, and to express algorithms precisely. Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms; sometimes the term "computer language" is used for more limited artificial languages.
== See also ==
==References==
* Crystal, David (1997). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
* Crystal, David (1997). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
* Crystal, David (2001). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
* Crystal, David (2001). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
* [[Eric R. Kandel|Kandel ER]], Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. ''[[Principles of Neural Science]]'', fourth edition, 1173 pages. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0-8385-7701-6
* [[Eric R. Kandel|Kandel ER]], Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. ''[[Principles of Neural Science]]'', fourth edition, 1173 pages. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0-8385-7701-6
* Katzner, K. (1999). ''The Languages of the World.'' New York, Routledge.
* Katzner, K. (1999). ''The Languages of the World.'' New York, Routledge.
*Holquist, Michael. (1981) [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exbakdia.html#ex1 Introduction] to [[Mikhail Bakhtin]]'s ''The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays''. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. xv-xxxiv
*Holquist, Michael. (1981) [https://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exbakdia.html#ex1 Introduction] to [[Mikhail Bakhtin]]'s ''The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays''. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. xv-xxxiv
* McArthur, T. (1996). ''The Concise Companion to the English Language.'' Oxford, Oxford University Press.
* McArthur, T. (1996). ''The Concise Companion to the English Language.'' Oxford, Oxford University Press.
==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html Distribution of languages on the Internet]
*[https://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html Distribution of languages on the Internet]
==Literature==
===An Introduction===
Literature is literally "acquaintance with letters" as in the first sense given in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (from the [[Latin]] ''littera'' meaning "an individual written character ([[letter (alphabet)|letter]])"). The term has generally come to identify a collection of [[writing|text]]s or [[works of art]], which in Western culture are mainly [[prose]], both [[fiction]] and [[non-fiction]], [[drama]] and [[poetry]]. In much of, if not all, the world texts can be [[oral literature|oral]] as well and include such [[genre]]s as [[Epic poetry|epic]], [[legend]], [[Mythology|myth]], [[ballad]], plus other forms of oral poetry, and [[folktale]].
[[Nation]]s can have literatures, as can [[corporation]]s, [[Philosophy|philosophical schools]] or [[Periodization|historical periods]]. Popular belief commonly holds that the literature of a [[nation]], for example, comprises the collection of texts which make it a whole nation. The [[Hebrew Bible]], [[Iran|Persian]] ''[[Shahnama]]'', the [[India]]n ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Thirukural]]'', the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', ''[[Beowulf]]'', and the [[Constitution of the United States]], all fall within this definition of a kind of literature.
More generally, one can equate a literature with a collection of stories, poems, and plays that revolve around a particular topic. In this case, the stories, poems and plays may or may not have [[nationalism|nationalistic]] implications. The [[Western canon|Western Canon]] forms one such literature.
The term "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it and in what context. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and [[sculpture]]s to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language ([[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of [[inscription]]s or [[digital media]].
Furthermore, people may perceive a difference between "literature" and some popular forms of written work. The terms "[[literary fiction]]" and "[[literary merit]]" often serve to distinguish between individual works. For example, almost all literate people perceive the works of [[Charles Dickens]] as "literature", whereas some critics look down on the works of [[Jeffrey Archer]] as unworthy of inclusion under the general heading of "[[English literature]]". Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature", for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of [[grammar]] and [[syntax]], of an [[verisimilitude|unbelievable]] or disjointed [[plot (narrative)|story-line]], or of inconsistent or unconvincing [[characterization|characters]]. [[Genre fiction]] (for example: romance, crime, or science fiction) may also become excluded from consideration as "literature".
Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. [[Drawing|Illustrated]] stories, [[hypertext]]s, [[cave painting]]s and inscribed [[monument]]s have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature".
Different historical periods have emphasized various characteristics of literature. Early works often had an overt or covert religious or didactic purpose. Moralizing or prescriptive literature stems from such sources. The exotic nature of [[romance (genre)|romance]] flourished from the [[Middle Ages]] onwards, whereas the [[Age of Reason]] manufactured nationalistic epics and philosophical [[tract]]s. [[Romanticism]] emphasized the popular folk literature and emotive involvement, but gave way in the 19th-century West to a phase of so-called [[realism (arts)|realism]] and [[naturalism (literature)|naturalism]], investigations into what is real. The 20th century brought demands for [[symbolism]] or [[psychology|psychological]] insight in the delineation and development of character.
The [[Muslim]] Scientist and [[Philosopher]] [[Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq]] defined Literature as follows: "Literature is the garment which one puts on what he says or writes so that it may appear more attractive." "The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher Imam Jafar Ibn Mohammad As-Sadiq(a.s)" The Great Muslim Scientist and Philosopher Imam Jafar Ibn Mohammad As-Sadiq(a.s),Imam Hussain Publication, First Edition, ISBN 964-7371 12-8
== Forms of literature ==
=== Poetry ===
A [[poem]] is defined as a composition written in [[Meter (poetry)|verse]] (although verse has been equally used for epic and dramatic fiction). Poems rely heavily on [[imagery]], precise word choice, and [[metaphor]]; they may take the form of measures consisting of patterns of stresses ([[meter (poetry)|metric feet]]) or of patterns of different-length syllables (as in classical [[prosody]]); and they may or may not utilize [[rhyme]]. One cannot readily characterize [[poetry]] precisely. Typically though, poetry as a form of literature makes some significant use of the ''formal'' properties of the words it uses — the properties attached to the [[Writing|written]] or [[Speech communication|spoken]] form of the words, rather than to their meaning. Metre depends on [[syllable]]s and on [[rhythm]]s of speech; rhyme and [[alliteration]] depend on words that have similar pronunciation. Some recent poets, such as [[E. E. Cummings]], made extensive use of words' [[Visual perception|visual]] form.
Poetry perhaps pre-dates other forms of literature: early known examples include the [[Sumeria|Sumerian]] ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' (dated from around [[3rd millennium BC|2700 B.C.]]), parts of the [[Bible]], the surviving works of [[Homer]] (the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]''), and the [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. In cultures based primarily on oral traditions the formal characteristics of poetry often have a [[mnemonic]] function, and important texts: legal, [[genealogy|genealogical]] or moral, for example, may appear first in verse form.
Much poetry uses specific forms: the [[haiku]], the [[limerick (poetry)|limerick]], or the [[sonnet]], for example. A traditional haiku written in Japanese must have something to do with [[nature]], contain seventeen onji (syllables), distributed over three lines in groups of five, seven, and five, and should also have a kigo, a specific word indicating a season. A limerick has five lines, with a [[rhyme scheme]] of AABBA, and line lengths of 3,3,2,2,3 stressed syllables. It traditionally has a less reverent attitude towards nature.
Language and tradition dictate some poetic norms: Persian poetry always rhymes, Greek poetry rarely rhymes, Italian or French poetry often does, English and German can go either way (although modern non-rhyming poetry often, perhaps unfairly, has a more "serious" aura). Perhaps the most [[paradigm|paradigmatic]] style of English poetry, blank verse, as exemplified in works by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and by [[John Milton|Milton]], consists of unrhymed [[iambic pentameter]]s. Some languages prefer longer lines; some shorter ones. Some of these conventions result from the ease of fitting a specific language's vocabulary and grammar into certain structures, rather than into others; for example, some languages contain more rhyming words than others, or typically have longer words. Other structural conventions come about as the result of historical accidents, where many speakers of a language associate good poetry with a verse form preferred by a particular skilled or popular poet.
Works for theatre (see below) traditionally took verse form. This has now become rare outside [[opera]] and [[musical theater|musicals]], although many would argue that the language of drama remains intrinsically poetic.
In recent years, [[digital poetry]] has arisen that takes advantage of the artistic, publishing, and synthetic qualities of digital media.
=== Drama ===
A [[play]] or [[drama]] offers another classical literary form that has continued to evolve over the years. It generally comprises chiefly [[dialogue]] between [[Fictional character|characters]], and usually aims at dramatic / theatrical [[performance]] (see [[theatre]]) rather than at reading. During the [[18th century|eighteenth]] and [[19th century|nineteenth centuries]], [[opera]] developed as a combination of poetry, drama, and [[music]]. Nearly all drama took verse form until comparatively recently. Shakespeare could be considered drama. Romeo and Juliet, for example, is a classic romantic drama generally accepted as literature.
- [[Greek theatre|Greek drama]] exemplifies the earliest form of drama of which we have substantial knowledge. [[Tragedy]], as a dramatic [[genre]], developed as a performance associated with [[religion|religious]] and civic [[festival]]s, typically enacting or developing upon well-known [[history|historical]] or [[mythology|mythological]] themes. Tragedies generally presented very serious [[Theme (literature)|Theme]].
-
- With the advent of newer technologies, scripts written for non-stage media have been added to this form. [[War of the Worlds (radio)]] in 1938 saw the advent of literature written for radio broadcast, and many works of Drama have been adapted for film or television. Conversely, television, film, and radio literature have been adapted to printed or electronic media.
-'wekipedia literature'-
=== Essays ===
An [[essay]] consists of a discussion of a topic from an author's personal point of view, exemplified by works by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]] or by [[Charles Lamb]].
'Essay' in English derives from the French 'essai', meaning 'attempt'. Thus one can find open-ended, provocative and/or inconclusive essays. The term "essays" first applied to the self-reflective musings of [[Michel de Montaigne]], and even today he has a reputation as the father of this literary form.
Genres related to the essay may include:
* the [[memoir]], telling the story of an author's life from the author's personal point of view
* the [[epistle]]: usually a formal, didactic, or elegant [[letter]].
=== Prose fiction ===
'''[[Prose]]''' consists of writing that does not adhere to any particular formal structures (other than simple [[grammar]]); "non-poetic writing," writing, perhaps. The term sometimes appears pejoratively, but prosaic writing simply says something without necessarily trying to say it in a [[beautiful]] way, or using beautiful words. Prose writing can of course take beautiful form; but less by virtue of the formal features of words (rhymes, alliteration, metre) but rather by style, placement, or inclusion of graphics. But one need not mark the distinction precisely, and perhaps cannot do so. Note the classifications:
* "[[prose poetry]]", which attempts to convey the aesthetic richness typical of poetry using only prose
* "[[free verse]]", or poetry not adhering to any of the structures of one or another formal poetic style
Narrative [[fiction]] ([https://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Narrative_prose narrative prose]) generally favours prose for the writing of [[novels]], short stories, graphic novels, and the like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent centuries. Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction. Although limits remain somewhat arbitrary, modern [[publishing]] conventions dictate the following:
* A [[Mini Saga]] is a short story of ''exactly'' 50 words
* A [[Flash fiction]] is generally defined as a piece of prose under a thousand words.
* A [[short story]] comprises prose writing of less than 10,000 to 20,000 words, but typically more than 500 words, which may or may not have a narrative arc.
* A story containing between 20,000 and 50,000 words falls into the [[novella]] category.
* A work of fiction containing more than 50,000 words falls squarely into the realm of the [[novel]].
A [[novel]] consists simply of a long story written in prose, yet the form developed comparatively recently. [[Icelandic literature|Icelandic]] prose [[Norse Saga|sagas]] dating from about the 11th century bridge the gap between traditional national [[Epic poetry|verse epic]]s and the modern [[psychological novel]]. In mainland Europe, the [[Spain|Spaniard]] [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]] wrote perhaps the first influential novel: ''[[Don Quixote]]'', the first part of which was published in [[1605]] and the second in [[1615]]. Earlier collections of [[short story|tale]]s, such as [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]]'s ''[[The Decameron|Decameron]]'' and [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', have comparable forms and would classify as novels if written today. Earlier works written in Asia resemble even more strongly the novel as we now think of it — for example, works such as the [[China|Chinese]] ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' and the [[Japan|Japanese]] ''[[The Tale of Genji|Tale of Genji]]'' by [[Murasaki Shikibu|Lady Murasaki]]. Compare to [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]].
Early novels in Europe did not, at the time, count as significant literature, perhaps because "mere" prose writing seemed easy and unimportant. It has become clear, however, that prose writing can provide aesthetic pleasure without adhering to poetic forms. Additionally, the freedom authors gain in not having to concern themselves with verse structure translates often into a more complex [[plot (narrative)|plot]] or into one richer in precise detail than one typically finds even in narrative poetry. This freedom also allows an author to experiment with many different literary and presentation styles — including poetry— in the scope of a single novel.
See [[Ian Watt]]'s ''The Rise of the Novel''.
=== Other prose literature ===
[[Philosophy]], [[history]], [[journalism]], and legal and scientific writings traditionally ranked as literature. They offer some of the oldest prose writings in existence; novels and prose stories earned the names "[[fiction]]" to distinguish them from factual writing or [[nonfiction]], which writers historically have crafted in prose.
The "literary" nature of science writing has become less pronounced over the last two centuries, as advances and specialization have made new scientific research inaccessible to most audiences; science now appears mostly in [[scientific journal|journals]]. Scientific works of [[Euclid]], [[Aristotle]], [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] still possess great value; but since the science in them has largely become outdated, they no longer serve for scientific instruction, yet they remain too technical to sit well in most programmes of literary study. Outside of "[[history of science]]" programmes students rarely read such works. Many books "popularizing" science might still deserve the title "literature"; history will tell.
Philosophy, too, has become an increasingly academic discipline. More of its practitioners lament this situation than occurs with the sciences; nonetheless most new philosophical work appears in [[Academic publishing|academic journals]]. Major philosophers through history—[[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]—have become as canonical as any writers. Some recent philosophy works are argued to merit the title "literature", such as some of the works by [[Simon Blackburn]]; but much of it does not, and some areas, such as [[logic]], have become extremely technical to a degree similar to that of [[mathematics]].
A great deal of historical writing can still rank as literature, particularly the genre known as [[creative nonfiction]]. So can a great deal of journalism, such as [[literary journalism]]. However these areas have become extremely large, and often have a primarily utilitarian purpose: to record data or convey immediate information. As a result the writing in these fields often lacks a literary quality, although it often and in its better moments has that quality. Major "literary" historians include [[Herodotus]], [[Thucydides]] and [[Procopius]], all of whom count as canonical literary figures.
[[Law]] offers a less clear case. Some writings of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], or even the early parts of the [[Bible]], might count as legal literature. The law tables of [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]] might count. [[Roman law|Roman civil law]] as codified in the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] during the reign of [[Justinian I]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] has a reputation as significant literature. The founding documents of many countries, including the [[United States Constitution]], can count as literature; however legal writing now rarely exhibits literary merit.
[[Game Design]] Scripts - In essence never seen by the player of a game and only by the developers and/or publishers, the audience for these pieces is usually very small. Still, many game scripts contain immersive stories and detailed worlds making them hidden literary gems.
Most of these fields, then, through specialization or proliferation, no longer generally constitute "literature" in the sense under discussion. They may sometimes count as "literary literature"; more often they produce what one might call "technical literature" or "professional literature".
==Related Narrative Forms==
* [[Graphic novel]]s and [[comic book]]s present stories told in a combination of sequential artwork, dialogue and text.
* [[Film]]s, videos and broadcast [[soap opera]]s have carved out a niche which often parallels the functionality of prose fiction.
* [[Interactive fiction]], a term for a prose-based genre of computer games, occupies a small literary niche.
* [[Electronic literature]] is a developing literary genre meant to be read on a computer screen, often making use of [[hypertext]].
== Genres of literature ==
A literary genre refers to the traditional divisions of literature of various kinds according to a particular criterion of writing. See [[literary genre|the list of literary genres]].
== Literary techniques ==
A '''literary technique''' or '''literary device''' may be used by works of literature in order to produce a specific effect on the reader. Literary technique is distinguished from [[literary genre]] as [[military tactics]] are from [[military strategy]]. Thus, though ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'' employs satire at certain moments, it belongs to the genre of comic novel, not that of satire. By contrast, ''[[Bleak House]]'' employs satire so consistently as to belong to the genre of satirical novel. In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with one of the first modern novels, ''[[Pamela]]'' by [[Samuel Richardson]], which by using the epistolary technique strengthened the tradition of the [[epistolary novel]], a genre which had been practiced for some time already but without the same acclaim.
== Literary figures ==
*[[Author]]s
*[[Critic]]s
*[[Dramatist]]s
*[[Essayist]]s
*[[Journalist]]s
*[[Novelist]]s
*[[Poet]]s
*[[Short story author]]s
*[[Writer]]s
*[[Zinester]]s
== Literature by country, language, or cultural group==
see ''[[literature by country|Literature by country, language, or cultural group]]'' and the category ''[[:Category:Literature by nationality|literature by nationality]].''
==Literary criticism==
*[[Literary criticism]]
*[[Literary history]]
*[[Literary theory]]
Literary criticism implies a critique and evaluation of a piece of literature and in some cases is used to improve a work in progress or classical piece.
There are many types of literary criticism and each can be used to critique a piece in a different way or critique a different aspect of a piece. The major types of literary criticism are Marxism, Human studies, which umbrellas homosexual studies and feminism, historical, and Traditional, also known as New Criticism.
==Themes in literature==
'''Theme''' is a broad idea in a story, or a message conveyed by a work. This message is usually about [[life]], [[society]] or [[human nature]]. Themes are usually implied rather than explicitly stated. Deep thematic content is not required in literature; however, some readers would say that all stories inherently project some kind of outlook on life that can be taken as a theme, regardless of whether or not this is the [[Authorial intentionality|intent of the author]]. Analysis of changes in dynamic characters can provide insight into a particular theme.
==Other==
*[[Scientific literature]]
*[[Literature cycle]]
*[[Rabbinic literature]]
*[[Vernacular literature]]
*[[Postcolonial literature]]
=== Related topics ===
* [[Asemic|Asemic Writing]]
* [[Children's literature]]
* [[Cultural movement]] for literary movements.
* [[English studies]]
* [[Ergodic literature]]
* [[Hinman Collator]]
* [[History of literature]] (antiquity — 1800)
* [[History of modern literature]] (1800 —)
* [[Literature basic topics]]
* [[Literary criticism]]
* [[Literary magazine]]
* [[Orature]]
* [[World literature]]
==External links==
*[[Open Directory Project]]:
**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/ Literature]
**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/World_Literature/ World Literature]
**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Electronic_Text_Archives/ Electronic Text Archives]
**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Magazines_and_E-zines/ Magazines and E-zines]
**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Online_Writing/ Online Writing]
**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Writers_Resources/ Writers Resources]
**[https://dmoz.org/Reference/Libraries/Digital/ Libraries, Digital]
**[https://dmoz.org/Reference/Libraries/Library_and_Information_Science/Technical_Services/Cataloguing/Metadata/ Cataloguing, Metadata]
**[https://dmoz.org/Reference/Education/Distance_Learning/ Distance Learning]
*[https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-55 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Classicism in Literature
*[https://www.tsarbooks.com/ TSAR Publications]
*[https://www.ulib.org/ The Universal Library], by [[Carnegie Mellon University]]
*[https://gutenberg.net Project Gutenberg Online Library]
**[https://www.abacci.com/books/default.asp Abacci] - Project Gutenberg texts matched with Amazon reviews
**[https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu The Online Books Page] A search engine for online ebooks.
*[https://www.iblist.com Internet Book List] - Similar to [[Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] but for books.
*[https://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/literature.htm The Art of Literature:] Essay from [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] by [[Kenneth Rexroth]].
*[https://www.awardannals.com Most Honored Literature], books sorted by awards.
*[https://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology] (José Ángel García Landa, University of Zaragoza, Spain)
**[https://litterature.canalblog.com/ Univers Litteraire]
* [https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/g-index.html The Johns Hopkins Guide to literary Theory and Criticism]
*[https://www.thereader.co.uk The Reader] - Literary magazine publishing poetry, short fiction and articles about literature and reading.
* [https://www.booktalkforums.com/ Online Literature Discussions]
*[https://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm American literary realism: definitions, links, bibliographies]
* [https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism. In ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''.]
[[Category: General Reference]]
[[Category: General Reference]]
[[Category: Literature]]
[[Category: Languages and Literature]]
