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A '''language''' is a [[system]] of arbitrary symbols and the rules used to manipulate them.  '''Language''' can also refer to the use of such systems as a general [[phenomenon]].  Though commonly used as a means of communication among people, human language is only one instance of this phenomenon.  This article concerns the properties of language in general.  For information specifically on the use of language by humans see the main article on [[natural language]].

A '''language''' is a [[system]] of arbitrary symbols and the rules used to manipulate them.  '''Language''' can also refer to the use of such systems as a general [[phenomenon]].  Though commonly used as a means of communication among people, human language is only one instance of this phenomenon.  This article concerns the properties of language in general.  For information specifically on the use of language by humans see the main article on [[natural language]].

Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a [[grammar]], or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively inexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them.

Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a [[grammar]], or system of rules, used to manipulate the symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively inexpressive, because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them.

Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''{{lang|es|nada}}'' itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean "nothing". That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] or [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] speakers, ''{{lang|hr|nada}}'' means "hope".

Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''nada'' itself that forces Spanish speakers to use it to mean "nothing". That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But for [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] or [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] speakers, ''nada'' means "hope".

However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent (see [[Onomatopoeia]]), but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it.

However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent (see [[Onomatopoeia]]), but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same concepts could be expressed with it.

Programming languages are used to facilitate communication about the task of organizing and manipulating information, and to express algorithms precisely. Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms; sometimes the term "computer language" is used for more limited artificial languages.

Programming languages are used to facilitate communication about the task of organizing and manipulating information, and to express algorithms precisely. Some authors restrict the term "programming language" to those languages that can express all possible algorithms; sometimes the term "computer language" is used for more limited artificial languages.

== See also ==

==References==

 

* Crystal, David (1997). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

* Crystal, David (1997). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

* Crystal, David (2001). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

* Crystal, David (2001). ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language.'' Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

* [[Eric R. Kandel|Kandel ER]], Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. ''[[Principles of Neural Science]]'', fourth edition, 1173 pages. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0-8385-7701-6

* [[Eric R. Kandel|Kandel ER]], Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. ''[[Principles of Neural Science]]'', fourth edition, 1173 pages. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0-8385-7701-6

* Katzner, K. (1999). ''The Languages of the World.'' New York, Routledge.

* Katzner, K. (1999). ''The Languages of the World.'' New York, Routledge.

*Holquist, Michael. (1981) [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exbakdia.html#ex1 Introduction] to [[Mikhail Bakhtin]]'s ''The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays''. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. xv-xxxiv

*Holquist, Michael. (1981) [https://www.utexas.edu/utpress/excerpts/exbakdia.html#ex1 Introduction] to [[Mikhail Bakhtin]]'s ''The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays''. Austin and London: University of Texas Press. xv-xxxiv

* McArthur, T. (1996). ''The Concise Companion to the English Language.'' Oxford, Oxford University Press.

* McArthur, T. (1996). ''The Concise Companion to the English Language.'' Oxford, Oxford University Press.

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html Distribution of languages on the Internet]

*[https://www.netz-tipp.de/languages.html Distribution of languages on the Internet]

 

=='''Literature'''== is literally "acquaintance with letters" as in the first sense given in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (from the [[Latin]] ''littera'' meaning "an individual written character ([[letter (alphabet)|letter]])"). The term has generally come to identify a collection of [[writing|text]]s or [[works of art]], which in Western culture are mainly [[prose]], both [[fiction]] and [[non-fiction]], [[drama]] and [[poetry]].  In much of, if not all, the world texts can be [[oral literature|oral]] as well and include such [[genre]]s as [[Epic poetry|epic]], [[legend]], [[Mythology|myth]], [[ballad]], plus other forms of oral poetry, and [[folktale]].

==Literature==

[[Nation]]s can have literatures, as can [[corporation]]s, [[Philosophy|philosophical schools]] or [[Periodization|historical periods]]. Popular  belief commonly holds that the literature of a [[nation]], for example, comprises the collection of texts which make it a whole nation.  The [[Hebrew Bible]], [[Iran|Persian]] ''[[Shahnama]]'', the [[India]]n ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Thirukural]]'', the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', ''[[Beowulf]]'', and the [[Constitution of the United States]], all fall within this definition of a kind of literature.

[[Nation]]s can have literatures, as can [[corporation]]s, [[Philosophy|philosophical schools]] or [[Periodization|historical periods]]. Popular  belief commonly holds that the literature of a [[nation]], for example, comprises the collection of texts which make it a whole nation.  The [[Hebrew Bible]], [[Iran|Persian]] ''[[Shahnama]]'', the [[India]]n ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Thirukural]]'', the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'', ''[[Beowulf]]'', and the [[Constitution of the United States]], all fall within this definition of a kind of literature.

The term "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it and in what context. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and [[sculpture]]s to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language ([[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of [[inscription]]s or [[digital media]].

The term "literature" has different meanings depending on who is using it and in what context. It could be applied broadly to mean any symbolic record, encompassing everything from images and [[sculpture]]s to letters. In a more narrow sense the term could mean only text composed of letters, or other examples of symbolic written language ([[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], for example). An even more narrow interpretation is that text have a physical form, such as on paper or some other portable form, to the exclusion of [[inscription]]s or [[digital media]].

Furthermore, people may perceive a difference between "literature" and some popular forms of written work.  The terms "[[literary fiction]]" and "[[literary merit]]" often serve to distinguish between individual works.  For example, almost all literate people perceive the works of [[Charles Dickens]] as "literature", whereas some critics{{Fact|date=February 2007}} look down on the works of [[Jeffrey Archer]] as unworthy of inclusion under the general heading of "[[English literature]]".  Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature", for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of [[grammar]] and [[syntax]], of an [[verisimilitude|unbelievable]] or disjointed [[plot (narrative)|story-line]], or of inconsistent or unconvincing [[characterization|characters]].  [[Genre fiction]] (for example: romance, crime, or science fiction) may also become excluded from consideration as "literature".

Furthermore, people may perceive a difference between "literature" and some popular forms of written work.  The terms "[[literary fiction]]" and "[[literary merit]]" often serve to distinguish between individual works.  For example, almost all literate people perceive the works of [[Charles Dickens]] as "literature", whereas some critics look down on the works of [[Jeffrey Archer]] as unworthy of inclusion under the general heading of "[[English literature]]".  Critics may exclude works from the classification "literature", for example, on the grounds of a poor standard of [[grammar]] and [[syntax]], of an [[verisimilitude|unbelievable]] or disjointed [[plot (narrative)|story-line]], or of inconsistent or unconvincing [[characterization|characters]].  [[Genre fiction]] (for example: romance, crime, or science fiction) may also become excluded from consideration as "literature".

Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. [[Drawing|Illustrated]] stories, [[hypertext]]s, [[cave painting]]s and inscribed [[monument]]s have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature".

Frequently, the texts that make up literature crossed over these boundaries. [[Drawing|Illustrated]] stories, [[hypertext]]s, [[cave painting]]s and inscribed [[monument]]s have all at one time or another pushed the boundaries of "literature".

* "[[free verse]]", or poetry not adhering to any of the structures of one or another formal poetic style

* "[[free verse]]", or poetry not adhering to any of the structures of one or another formal poetic style

Narrative [[fiction]] ([http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Narrative_prose narrative prose]) generally favours prose for the writing of [[novels]], short stories, graphic novels, and the like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent centuries.  Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction.  Although limits remain somewhat arbitrary, modern [[publishing]] conventions dictate the following:  

Narrative [[fiction]] ([https://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Narrative_prose narrative prose]) generally favours prose for the writing of [[novels]], short stories, graphic novels, and the like. Singular examples of these exist throughout history, but they did not develop into systematic and discrete literary forms until relatively recent centuries.  Length often serves to categorize works of prose fiction.  Although limits remain somewhat arbitrary, modern [[publishing]] conventions dictate the following:  

* A [[Mini Saga]] is a short story of ''exactly'' 50 words

* A [[Mini Saga]] is a short story of ''exactly'' 50 words

* A [[Flash fiction]] is generally defined as a piece of prose under a thousand words.

* A [[Flash fiction]] is generally defined as a piece of prose under a thousand words.

*[[Open Directory Project]]:  

*[[Open Directory Project]]:  

**[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/ Literature]

**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/ Literature]

**[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/World_Literature/ World Literature]

**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/World_Literature/ World Literature]

**[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Electronic_Text_Archives/ Electronic Text Archives]

**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Electronic_Text_Archives/ Electronic Text Archives]

**[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Magazines_and_E-zines/ Magazines and E-zines]

**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Magazines_and_E-zines/ Magazines and E-zines]

**[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Online_Writing/ Online Writing]

**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Online_Writing/ Online Writing]

**[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Writers_Resources/ Writers Resources]

**[https://dmoz.org/Arts/Writers_Resources/ Writers Resources]

**[http://dmoz.org/Reference/Libraries/Digital/ Libraries, Digital]

**[https://dmoz.org/Reference/Libraries/Digital/ Libraries, Digital]

**[http://dmoz.org/Reference/Libraries/Library_and_Information_Science/Technical_Services/Cataloguing/Metadata/ Cataloguing, Metadata]

**[https://dmoz.org/Reference/Libraries/Library_and_Information_Science/Technical_Services/Cataloguing/Metadata/ Cataloguing, Metadata]

**[http://dmoz.org/Reference/Education/Distance_Learning/ Distance Learning]

**[https://dmoz.org/Reference/Education/Distance_Learning/ Distance Learning]

*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-55 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Classicism in Literature

*[https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-55 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Classicism in Literature

*[http://www.tsarbooks.com/  TSAR Publications]

*[https://www.tsarbooks.com/  TSAR Publications]

*[http://www.ulib.org/ The Universal Library], by [[Carnegie Mellon University]]

*[https://www.ulib.org/ The Universal Library], by [[Carnegie Mellon University]]

*[http://gutenberg.net Project Gutenberg Online Library]

*[https://gutenberg.net Project Gutenberg Online Library]

**[http://www.abacci.com/books/default.asp Abacci] - Project Gutenberg texts matched with Amazon reviews

**[https://www.abacci.com/books/default.asp Abacci] - Project Gutenberg texts matched with Amazon reviews

**[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu The Online Books Page] A search engine for online ebooks.

**[https://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu The Online Books Page] A search engine for online ebooks.

*[http://www.iblist.com Internet Book List] - Similar to [[Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] but for books.

*[https://www.iblist.com Internet Book List] - Similar to [[Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] but for books.

*[http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/literature.htm The Art of Literature:] Essay from [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] by [[Kenneth Rexroth]].

*[https://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/essays/literature.htm The Art of Literature:] Essay from [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] by [[Kenneth Rexroth]].

*[http://www.awardannals.com Most Honored Literature], books sorted by awards.

*[https://www.awardannals.com Most Honored Literature], books sorted by awards.

*[http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology] (José Ángel García Landa, University of Zaragoza, Spain)

*[https://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology] (José Ángel García Landa, University of Zaragoza, Spain)

**[http://litterature.canalblog.com/ Univers Litteraire]

**[https://litterature.canalblog.com/ Univers Litteraire]

* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/g-index.html The Johns Hopkins Guide to literary Theory and Criticism]

* [https://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/g-index.html The Johns Hopkins Guide to literary Theory and Criticism]

*[http://www.thereader.co.uk The Reader] - Literary magazine publishing poetry, short fiction and articles about literature and reading.

*[https://www.thereader.co.uk The Reader] - Literary magazine publishing poetry, short fiction and articles about literature and reading.

* [http://www.booktalkforums.com/ Online Literature Discussions]

* [https://www.booktalkforums.com/ Online Literature Discussions]

*[http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm American literary realism: definitions, links, bibliographies]

*[https://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/realism.htm American literary realism: definitions, links, bibliographies]

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism. In ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''.]

* [https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaIII.html The history of ideas in literature and the arts in aesthetic theory and literary criticism. In ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas''.]