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The sale of putative anti-aging products such as nutrition, [[physical]] fitness, skin care, hormone replacements, vitamins, supplements and herbs has become a lucrative industry, with the US market generating about $50 billion of revenue each year.[1] Medical experts state that the use of such products has not been shown to affect the aging [[process]], and many claims of anti-aging medicine advocates have been roundly criticized by medical experts, including the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Medical_Association American Medical Association].[1][2][3][4] Bioethicists question whether and how the human lifespan should be extended.
The sale of putative anti-aging products such as nutrition, [[physical]] fitness, skin care, hormone replacements, vitamins, supplements and herbs has become a lucrative industry, with the US market generating about $50 billion of revenue each year.[1] Medical experts state that the use of such products has not been shown to affect the aging [[process]], and many claims of anti-aging medicine advocates have been roundly criticized by medical experts, including the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Medical_Association American Medical Association].[1][2][3][4] Bioethicists question whether and how the human lifespan should be extended.
==Ageing==
==Ageing==
[[Aging]] is an accumulation of damage to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromolecule macromolecules], cells, tissues and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy) organs]. The maximum life span for humans is in excess of 120 years, whereas the maximum lifespan of a mouse, commonly used as a [[model]] in [[research]] on aging, is about four years. [[Genetic]] [[differences]] between humans and mice that may account for these different aging rates include efficiency of DNA repair, types and quantities of antioxidant [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme enzymes], and different rates of free radical production.
[[Aging]] is an accumulation of damage to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macromolecule macromolecules], cells, tissues and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_(anatomy) organs]. The maximum life span for humans is in excess of 120 years, whereas the maximum lifespan of a mouse, commonly used as a [[model]] in [[research]] on aging, is about four years. [[Genetic]] [[differences]] between humans and mice that may account for these different aging rates include efficiency of DNA repair, types and quantities of antioxidant [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme enzymes], and different rates of free radical production.
Average lifespan in a [[population]] is lowered by infant and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_mortality child mortality], which are frequently linked to infectious diseases or nutrition problems. Later in life, vulnerability to [[accidents]] and age-related afflictions such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer cancer] or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease cardiovascular disease] play larger roles. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, [[exercise]] and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes and probably by certain [[environmental]] factors. One widely recognized [[method]] of extending maximum lifespan in [[organisms]] such as nematodes is calorie restriction. Another [[technique]] used evolutionary pressure such as breeding from only older members. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan could be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.
Average lifespan in a [[population]] is lowered by infant and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_mortality child mortality], which are frequently linked to infectious diseases or nutrition problems. Later in life, vulnerability to [[accidents]] and age-related afflictions such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer cancer] or [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease cardiovascular disease] play larger roles. Extension of average lifespan can be achieved by good diet, [[exercise]] and avoidance of hazards such as smoking. Maximum lifespan is determined by the rate of aging for a species inherent in its genes and probably by certain [[environmental]] factors. One widely recognized [[method]] of extending maximum lifespan in [[organisms]] such as nematodes is calorie restriction. Another [[technique]] used evolutionary pressure such as breeding from only older members. Theoretically, extension of maximum lifespan could be achieved by reducing the rate of aging damage, by periodic replacement of damaged tissues, or by molecular repair or rejuvenation of deteriorated cells and tissues.
==Current anti-aging strategies and issues==
==Current anti-aging strategies and issues==
The restriction of energy intake, or calories, in an otherwise healthy [[diet]] (a practice generally called Calorie restriction or simply CR) has been shown to extend the maximum life span of laboratory [[organisms]] from several species, including rats, yeast, fruit flies, and nematodes. In rodents, a roughly 50% maximum lifespan extension is seen with a roughly 50% restriction of calories from what would be consumed by freely-feeding [[animals]]. The results of calorie restriction [[experiments]] on laboratory rats may not be generalizable because years of inbreeding have made these animals different from those found in the wild, and because these results are applicable specifically to short-lived species that have evolved to respond to feast and famine with alterations in longevity. Proving that calorie restriction could extend [[human]] life is difficult because experiments with long-lived species necessarily take a long time to perform. [[Scientists]] propose that the results of calorie restriction experiments on animals also depend on the [[habitat]], [[genetics]], other aspects of nutrition and frequencies of feeding.
The restriction of energy intake, or calories, in an otherwise healthy [[diet]] (a practice generally called Calorie restriction or simply CR) has been shown to extend the maximum life span of laboratory [[organisms]] from several species, including rats, yeast, fruit flies, and nematodes. In rodents, a roughly 50% maximum lifespan extension is seen with a roughly 50% restriction of calories from what would be consumed by freely-feeding [[animals]]. The results of calorie restriction [[experiments]] on laboratory rats may not be generalizable because years of inbreeding have made these animals different from those found in the wild, and because these results are applicable specifically to short-lived species that have evolved to respond to feast and famine with alterations in longevity. Proving that calorie restriction could extend [[human]] life is difficult because experiments with long-lived species necessarily take a long time to perform. [[Scientists]] propose that the results of calorie restriction experiments on animals also depend on the [[habitat]], [[genetics]], other aspects of nutrition and frequencies of feeding.
The [[idea]] that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant antioxidant] supplements, such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C Vitamin C], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocopherol Vitamin E], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipoic_acid lipoic acid] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcysteine N-acetylcysteine], might extend human life stems from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical_theory free radical theory of aging]. Other substances proposed to extend lifespan include oxytocin, insulin, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and erythropoietin (EPO). Resveratrol is a sirtuin stimulant that appears to extend lifespan in simple model organisms such as nematodes[9] and short-lived fish.[10]
The [[idea]] that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidant antioxidant] supplements, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C Vitamin C], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocopherol Vitamin E], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipoic_acid lipoic acid] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcysteine N-acetylcysteine], might extend human life stems from the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical_theory free radical theory of aging]. Other substances proposed to extend lifespan include oxytocin, insulin, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and erythropoietin (EPO). Resveratrol is a sirtuin stimulant that appears to extend lifespan in simple model organisms such as nematodes[9] and short-lived fish.[10]
Some supplements, including the minerals selenium[11] or zinc[12][13] have been reported to extend the lifespan of rats and mice, though none has been proven to do so in humans, and significant toxic effects were observed. Metformin[14] may also extend life span in mice.
Some supplements, including the minerals selenium[11] or zinc[12][13] have been reported to extend the lifespan of rats and mice, though none has been proven to do so in humans, and significant toxic effects were observed. Metformin[14] may also extend life span in mice.
The anti-aging industry offers several hormone therapies. Some of these products have been criticized, for example by the American Medical Association, for possible dangers to the patient and a lack of proven effect.[1]
The anti-aging industry offers several hormone therapies. Some of these products have been criticized, for example by the American Medical Association, for possible dangers to the patient and a lack of proven effect.[1]
The [[evidence]] for use of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormone growth hormone] is mixed and based on [[animal]] studies. An early study suggested that supplementation of mice with growth hormone increased average life expectancy.[15] Additional animal [[experiments]] have suggested that growth hormone may generally [[act]] to shorten maximum lifespan; knockout mice lacking the receptor for growth hormone live especially long.[16] Furthermore, mouse models lacking the insulin-like growth factor also live especially long and have low levels of growth hormone.[16]
The [[evidence]] for use of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growth_hormone growth hormone] is mixed and based on [[animal]] studies. An early study suggested that supplementation of mice with growth hormone increased average life expectancy.[15] Additional animal [[experiments]] have suggested that growth hormone may generally [[act]] to shorten maximum lifespan; knockout mice lacking the receptor for growth hormone live especially long.[16] Furthermore, mouse models lacking the insulin-like growth factor also live especially long and have low levels of growth hormone.[16]
The synthetic estrogen [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premarin Premarin] (made from mare’s urine), has been proposed to reduce the impact of menopause. In 1991, the Women’s Health Initiative studied 161,808 postmenopausal women with randomized trials of hormone supplements or placebo. It discontinued the study in 2002 because it concluded that, on the whole, the supplements were doing more harm than [[good]] (primarily due to an increased risk of breast cancer). Testosterone supplements in the form of creams or patches have been proposed for men. Regular Human Growth Hormone (HGH) injections cost about $10–12,000 a year. On the [[internet]], many websites promote less expensive [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretagogue secretagogues] that claim to prompt the body to produce HGH. There is little independent research on HGH secretagogues.
The synthetic estrogen [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premarin Premarin] (made from mare’s urine), has been proposed to reduce the impact of menopause. In 1991, the Women’s Health Initiative studied 161,808 postmenopausal women with randomized trials of hormone supplements or placebo. It discontinued the study in 2002 because it concluded that, on the whole, the supplements were doing more harm than [[good]] (primarily due to an increased risk of breast cancer). Testosterone supplements in the form of creams or patches have been proposed for men. Regular Human Growth Hormone (HGH) injections cost about $10–12,000 a year. On the [[internet]], many websites promote less expensive [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secretagogue secretagogues] that claim to prompt the body to produce HGH. There is little independent research on HGH secretagogues.
===Ethics and politics of anti-aging nutritional supplementation and medicine===
===Ethics and politics of anti-aging nutritional supplementation and medicine===
[[Politics]] relevant to the substances of life extension pertain mostly to communications and availability. In the United States, the claims which can be made on food and drug product labels are strictly regulated. Meanwhile, freedom of speech guaranteed by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution First Amendment] currently only protects the right of third-party publishers to print [[books]], newsletters, websites, etc. on every aspect of these substances, including opinions, speculations, etc. Many manufacturers and suppliers also provide publications, but because they are also marketing the substances, they are subject to the monitoring and enforcement efforts of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission Federal Trade Commission] (FTC) which has jurisdiction over false claims made by marketers in [[public]] [[media]]. What constitutes the [[difference]] between truthful and false claims is hotly debated and is a central controversy in this arena.
[[Politics]] relevant to the substances of life extension pertain mostly to communications and availability. In the United States, the claims which can be made on food and drug product labels are strictly regulated. Meanwhile, freedom of speech guaranteed by the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution First Amendment] currently only protects the right of third-party publishers to print [[books]], newsletters, websites, etc. on every aspect of these substances, including opinions, speculations, etc. Many manufacturers and suppliers also provide publications, but because they are also marketing the substances, they are subject to the monitoring and enforcement efforts of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission Federal Trade Commission] (FTC) which has jurisdiction over false claims made by marketers in [[public]] [[media]]. What constitutes the [[difference]] between truthful and false claims is hotly debated and is a central controversy in this arena.
==Proposed strategies of life extension==
==Proposed strategies of life extension==
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Kurzweil Raymond Kurzweil], a futurist and transhumanist, believes that advanced medical nanorobotics could completely cure aging by 2030.[17] According to Kurzweil, applying successive anti-aging methods as they become available could allow individuals to live long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed.[citation needed]
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Kurzweil Raymond Kurzweil], a futurist and transhumanist, believes that advanced medical nanorobotics could completely cure aging by 2030.[17] According to Kurzweil, applying successive anti-aging methods as they become available could allow individuals to live long enough to benefit from a complete cure to aging once it is developed.[citation needed]
===Cloning and body part replacement===
===Cloning and body part replacement===
Some life extensionists suggest that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_cloning therapeutic cloning] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell stem cell] [[research]] could one day provide a way to generate [[cells]], [[body]] parts, or even entire bodies (generally referred to as reproductive cloning) that would be genetically identical to a prospective patient. In one [[experiment]], a functioning dog's bladder was grown and proved to be viable after implantation. Recently, the US Department of Defense initiated a program to research the possibility of growing human body parts on mice.[18] [[Complex]] [[biological]] [[structures]], such as mammalian joints and limbs, have not yet been made. In one popular scenario, an individual's [[brain]] is transplanted from his or her aging body into a new, youthful body cloned from his or her own tissues. Dog and primate brain transplantation experiments were conducted in the mid-20th century but failed due to rejection and the inability to restore nerve connections. Proponents of body part replacement and cloning contend that the required biotechnologies are likely to appear earlier than other life-extension technologies.
Some life extensionists suggest that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Therapeutic_cloning therapeutic cloning] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell stem cell] [[research]] could one day provide a way to generate [[cells]], [[body]] parts, or even entire bodies (generally referred to as reproductive cloning) that would be genetically identical to a prospective patient. In one [[experiment]], a functioning dog's bladder was grown and proved to be viable after implantation. Recently, the US Department of Defense initiated a program to research the possibility of growing human body parts on mice.[18] [[Complex]] [[biological]] [[structures]], such as mammalian joints and limbs, have not yet been made. In one popular scenario, an individual's [[brain]] is transplanted from his or her aging body into a new, youthful body cloned from his or her own tissues. Dog and primate brain transplantation experiments were conducted in the mid-20th century but failed due to rejection and the inability to restore nerve connections. Proponents of body part replacement and cloning contend that the required biotechnologies are likely to appear earlier than other life-extension technologies.
The use of human stem cells, particularly [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryonic_stem_cells embryonic stem cells], is controversial. Opponents' objections generally are based on [[interpretations]] of [[religious]] teachings or [[ethical]] considerations. Proponents of stem cell research point out that cells are routinely formed and destroyed in a variety of [[contexts]]. Use of stem cells taken from the umbilical cord or parts of the adult [[body]] may not provoke controversy.[19] The controversies over cloning are similar, except general public opinion in most countries stands in opposition to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_cloning reproductive cloning]. Some proponents of therapeutic cloning predict the production of whole bodies, lacking [[consciousness]], for eventual brain transplantation.
The use of human stem cells, particularly [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryonic_stem_cells embryonic stem cells], is controversial. Opponents' objections generally are based on [[interpretations]] of [[religious]] teachings or [[ethical]] considerations. Proponents of stem cell research point out that cells are routinely formed and destroyed in a variety of [[contexts]]. Use of stem cells taken from the umbilical cord or parts of the adult [[body]] may not provoke controversy.[19] The controversies over cloning are similar, except general public opinion in most countries stands in opposition to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_cloning reproductive cloning]. Some proponents of therapeutic cloning predict the production of whole bodies, lacking [[consciousness]], for eventual brain transplantation.
===Cryonics===
===Cryonics===
For cryonicists (advocates of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryopreservation cryopreservation]), storing the body at low temperatures after [[death]] may provide an "ambulance" into a future in which advanced medical technologies may allow resuscitation and repair. They speculate cryogenic temperatures will minimise changes in [[biological]] tissue for many years, giving the medical [[community]] ample time to cure all disease, rejuvenate the aged and repair any damage that is caused by the cryopreservation [[process]].
For cryonicists (advocates of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryopreservation cryopreservation]), storing the body at low temperatures after [[death]] may provide an "ambulance" into a future in which advanced medical technologies may allow resuscitation and repair. They speculate cryogenic temperatures will minimise changes in [[biological]] tissue for many years, giving the medical [[community]] ample time to cure all disease, rejuvenate the aged and repair any damage that is caused by the cryopreservation [[process]].
Cryonicists do not believe that [[legal]] death is "real death" because stoppage of heartbeat and breathing, the usual [[criteria]] for legal death, occur before biological death of cells and tissues of the body. Even at room temperature, cells may take hours to die and days to decompose. Although neurological damage occurs within 4–6 minutes of cardiac arrest, the irreversible neurodegenerative processes do not manifest for hours.[20] They state that rapid cooling and cardio-pulmonary support applied immediately after pronouncement of death can preserve cells and tissues for long-term preservation at cryogenic temperatures. People, especially [[children]], have survived up to an hour without heartbeat after having fallen into ice water. In one case, full recovery was reported after 45 minutes underwater.[21] To facilitate rapid preservation of cells and tissue, cryonics "standby teams" wait by the bedside of patients who wish to be cryopreserved to apply cooling and cardio-pulmonary support as soon as possible after declaration of death.
Cryonicists do not believe that [[legal]] death is "real death" because stoppage of heartbeat and breathing, the usual [[criteria]] for legal death, occur before biological death of cells and tissues of the body. Even at room temperature, cells may take hours to die and days to decompose. Although neurological damage occurs within 4–6 minutes of cardiac arrest, the irreversible neurodegenerative processes do not manifest for hours.[20] They state that rapid cooling and cardio-pulmonary support applied immediately after pronouncement of death can preserve cells and tissues for long-term preservation at cryogenic temperatures. People, especially [[children]], have survived up to an hour without heartbeat after having fallen into ice water. In one case, full recovery was reported after 45 minutes underwater.[21] To facilitate rapid preservation of cells and tissue, cryonics "standby teams" wait by the bedside of patients who wish to be cryopreserved to apply cooling and cardio-pulmonary support as soon as possible after declaration of death.
Mind uploading is the transfer of the [[human]] [[mind]]/[[consciousness]] to a more durable [[material]] vessel (stereotypically but not necessarily a silicon computer).
Mind uploading is the transfer of the [[human]] [[mind]]/[[consciousness]] to a more durable [[material]] vessel (stereotypically but not necessarily a silicon computer).
The [[concept]] is based on [[materialism]], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind philosophy of mind] that [[argues]] that the human [[spirit]] is entirely composed of a very [[complex]] system of [[physical]] and [[chemical]] interactions. However, it is not understood how consciousness exists, and there is no existing [[technology]] for "reading" the "[[contents]]" of a human mind. Futurist Ray Kurzweil predicts that computer hardware will be powerful enough to run a [[functional]] [[model]] of the human mind by the 2020s.
The [[concept]] is based on [[materialism]], the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind philosophy of mind] that [[argues]] that the human [[spirit]] is entirely composed of a very [[complex]] system of [[physical]] and [[chemical]] interactions. However, it is not understood how consciousness exists, and there is no existing [[technology]] for "reading" the "[[contents]]" of a human mind. Futurist Ray Kurzweil predicts that computer hardware will be powerful enough to run a [[functional]] [[model]] of the human mind by the 2020s.
If the [[mind]]'s contents could be read and transferred, would the [[personal]] [[identity]] of the [[original]] human be retained? And what would be the [[status]] of personal identity after duplication? A possible solution to the first objection is to interface [[biological]] humans brains with computer parts, and the gradual replacement of biological components with [[mechanical]] ones — [[function]]ally no different to the biological renewal of synapses. The philosophical [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_Theseus#Human_identity Ship of Theseus] [[enigma]] still remains with this solution.
If the [[mind]]'s contents could be read and transferred, would the [[personal]] [[identity]] of the [[original]] human be retained? And what would be the [[status]] of personal identity after duplication? A possible solution to the first objection is to interface [[biological]] humans brains with computer parts, and the gradual replacement of biological components with [[mechanical]] ones — [[function]]ally no different to the biological renewal of synapses. The philosophical [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_of_Theseus#Human_identity Ship of Theseus] [[enigma]] still remains with this solution.
The difficulty in seeing mind uploading as a solution is along the same lines of mind cloning and transporter [[duality]] [[paradox]]. The situation is contemplated where the mind is uploaded, yet the [[original]] mind remains. In this case, the [[person]] will still be themselves, and the clone will be alien to them, and vice versa. The biological mind would view itself as the original, but would die. The computer mind would view itself as original yet [[artificial]]. If the clone is a separate [[individual]], then the consciousness of the original would still die. Even in the case where there is never a clone (killing the original upon mind uploading, or the gradual replacement of biological components) while the distinction would be less apparent, it would still be applicable in some regards. Many regard the proposed [[existence]] of the human [[soul]] as an insurmountable barrier for uploading as well. There is also the [[materialist]] [[criticism]] that a copy can never be the original by definition.
The difficulty in seeing mind uploading as a solution is along the same lines of mind cloning and transporter [[duality]] [[paradox]]. The situation is contemplated where the mind is uploaded, yet the [[original]] mind remains. In this case, the [[person]] will still be themselves, and the clone will be alien to them, and vice versa. The biological mind would view itself as the original, but would die. The computer mind would view itself as original yet [[artificial]]. If the clone is a separate [[individual]], then the consciousness of the original would still die. Even in the case where there is never a clone (killing the original upon mind uploading, or the gradual replacement of biological components) while the distinction would be less apparent, it would still be applicable in some regards. Many regard the proposed [[existence]] of the human [[soul]] as an insurmountable barrier for uploading as well. There is also the [[materialist]] [[criticism]] that a copy can never be the original by definition.
===Nanomedicine===
===Nanomedicine===
Some, such as Robert Freitas, Ray Kurzweil, and others, have proposed that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanorobotics nanorobots] could perform cellular repair in vivo, which could reverse damage from aging at the molecular level, restoring youth and giving a potentially [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_lifespan indefinite lifespan]. These proposals however rely on the as-of-yet highly speculative hypothetical [[technology]] of molecular manufacturing, so the feasibility of this is highly contentious.
Some, such as Robert Freitas, Ray Kurzweil, and others, have proposed that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanorobotics nanorobots] could perform cellular repair in vivo, which could reverse damage from aging at the molecular level, restoring youth and giving a potentially [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_lifespan indefinite lifespan]. These proposals however rely on the as-of-yet highly speculative hypothetical [[technology]] of molecular manufacturing, so the feasibility of this is highly contentious.
===Genetic Modification===
===Genetic Modification===
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy Gene therapy], in which artificial genes are inserted into an [[organism]] to replace mutated or otherwise deficient genes, has been proposed as a future [[strategy]] to prevent aging.[24][25]. Targeting catalase to the mitochondria resulted in a 20% lifespan increase in transgenic mice, and improved [[performance]] in AAV therapeutically infected mice.[26]
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_therapy Gene therapy], in which artificial genes are inserted into an [[organism]] to replace mutated or otherwise deficient genes, has been proposed as a future [[strategy]] to prevent aging.[24][25]. Targeting catalase to the mitochondria resulted in a 20% lifespan increase in transgenic mice, and improved [[performance]] in AAV therapeutically infected mice.[26]
==History of life extension and the life extension movement==
==History of life extension and the life extension movement==
In 1970, the American Aging Association was formed under the impetus of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denham_Harman Denham Harman] originator of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical_theory free radical theory] of aging. Harman wanted an organization of biogerontologists that was [[devoted]] to [[research]] and to the [[sharing]] of [[information]] among scientists interested in extending human lifespan.
In 1970, the American Aging Association was formed under the impetus of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denham_Harman Denham Harman] originator of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical_theory free radical theory] of aging. Harman wanted an organization of biogerontologists that was [[devoted]] to [[research]] and to the [[sharing]] of [[information]] among scientists interested in extending human lifespan.
Saul Kent published ''The Life Extension Revolution'' (ISBN 0-688-03580-9) in 1980 and created a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutraceutical nutraceutical] firm called the Life Extension Foundation, a non-profit organization that promotes supplements. The Life Extension Foundation publishes a periodical called Life Extension Magazine. The 1982 bestselling book ''Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach'' (ISBN 0-446-51229-X) by Durk Pearson and Sandy Shaw further popularized the phrase "life extension".
Saul Kent published ''The Life Extension Revolution'' (ISBN 0-688-03580-9) in 1980 and created a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutraceutical nutraceutical] firm called the Life Extension Foundation, a non-profit organization that promotes supplements. The Life Extension Foundation publishes a periodical called Life Extension Magazine. The 1982 bestselling book ''Life Extension: A Practical Scientific Approach'' (ISBN 0-446-51229-X) by Durk Pearson and Sandy Shaw further popularized the phrase "life extension".
[[Money]] generated by the non-profit Life Extension Foundation allowed Saul Kent to finance the Alcor Life Extension Foundation, the largest [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics cryonics] organization. The cryonics [[movement]] had been launched in 1962 by Robert Ettinger's book, ''The Prospect of Immortality''. In the 1960s, Saul Kent had been a co-founder of the Cryonics Society of New York. Alcor gained national prominence when baseball star Ted Williams was cryonically preserved by Alcor in 2002 and a family dispute arose as to whether Williams had really wanted to be cryopreserved.
[[Money]] generated by the non-profit Life Extension Foundation allowed Saul Kent to finance the Alcor Life Extension Foundation, the largest [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryonics cryonics] organization. The cryonics [[movement]] had been launched in 1962 by Robert Ettinger's book, ''The Prospect of Immortality''. In the 1960s, Saul Kent had been a co-founder of the Cryonics Society of New York. Alcor gained national prominence when baseball star Ted Williams was cryonically preserved by Alcor in 2002 and a family dispute arose as to whether Williams had really wanted to be cryopreserved.
In 1983, Roy Walford, a life-extensionist and gerontologist, published a popular book called ''Maximum Lifespan''. In 1988, Walford and his student Richard Weindruch summarized their [[research]] into the ability of calorie restriction to extend the lifespan of rodents in ''The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction'' (ISBN 0-398-05496-7). It had been known since the work of Clive McCay in the 1930s that calorie restriction can extend the maximum lifespan of rodents. But it was the work of Walford and Weindruch that gave detailed [[scientific]] grounding to that [[knowledge]]. Walford's [[personal]] interest in life extension motivated his scientific [[work]] and he practiced calorie restriction himself. Walford died at the age of 80 from complications caused by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis amyotrophic lateral sclerosis].
In 1983, Roy Walford, a life-extensionist and gerontologist, published a popular book called ''Maximum Lifespan''. In 1988, Walford and his student Richard Weindruch summarized their [[research]] into the ability of calorie restriction to extend the lifespan of rodents in ''The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction'' (ISBN 0-398-05496-7). It had been known since the work of Clive McCay in the 1930s that calorie restriction can extend the maximum lifespan of rodents. But it was the work of Walford and Weindruch that gave detailed [[scientific]] grounding to that [[knowledge]]. Walford's [[personal]] interest in life extension motivated his scientific [[work]] and he practiced calorie restriction himself. Walford died at the age of 80 from complications caused by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amyotrophic_lateral_sclerosis amyotrophic lateral sclerosis].
Regulatory and [[legal]] struggles between the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration Food and Drug Administration] (FDA) and the Life Extension Foundation have included seizure of merchandise and court action. In 1991, Saul Kent and Bill Faloon, the principals of the Foundation, were jailed. The LEF has accused the FDA of perpetrating a "Holocaust" and "seeking gestapo-like power" through its regulation of drugs and marketing claims.[27]
Regulatory and [[legal]] struggles between the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration Food and Drug Administration] (FDA) and the Life Extension Foundation have included seizure of merchandise and court action. In 1991, Saul Kent and Bill Faloon, the principals of the Foundation, were jailed. The LEF has accused the FDA of perpetrating a "Holocaust" and "seeking gestapo-like power" through its regulation of drugs and marketing claims.[27]
In 1992, the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine] (A4M) was formed to create what it considered an anti-aging medical specialty distinct from geriatrics, and to hold trade shows for physicians interested in anti-aging medicine. The American Board of Medical Specialties recognizes neither anti-aging medicine nor the A4M's professional standing.[28]
In 1992, the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Anti-Aging_Medicine American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine] (A4M) was formed to create what it considered an anti-aging medical specialty distinct from geriatrics, and to hold trade shows for physicians interested in anti-aging medicine. The American Board of Medical Specialties recognizes neither anti-aging medicine nor the A4M's professional standing.[28]
==Ethics and politics of life extension==
==Ethics and politics of life extension==
Leon Kass (chairman of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Bioethics US President's Council on Bioethics] from 2001 to 2005) has questioned whether [[potential]] exacerbation of overpopulation problems would make life extension unethical.[29] He states his opposition to life extension with the [[words]]:
Leon Kass (chairman of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President%27s_Council_on_Bioethics US President's Council on Bioethics] from 2001 to 2005) has questioned whether [[potential]] exacerbation of overpopulation problems would make life extension unethical.[29] He states his opposition to life extension with the [[words]]:
<blockquote>"simply to covet a prolonged life span for ourselves is both a sign and a cause of our failure to open ourselves to procreation and to any higher purpose. …[The] desire to prolong youthfulness is not only a childish desire to eat one's life and keep it; it is also an expression of a childish and narcissistic wish incompatible with devotion to posterity."[30]</blockquote>
<blockquote>"simply to covet a prolonged life span for ourselves is both a sign and a cause of our failure to open ourselves to procreation and to any higher purpose. …[The] desire to prolong youthfulness is not only a childish desire to eat one's life and keep it; it is also an expression of a childish and narcissistic wish incompatible with devotion to posterity."[30]</blockquote>
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanist Transhumanist] philosopher Nick Bostrom has argued that any [[technological]] advances in life extension must be equitably distributed and not restricted to a privileged few.[31] In an extended [[metaphor]] entitled "The Fable of the Dragon-Tyrant", Bostrom envisions death as a monstrous dragon who demands human sacrifices. In the fable, after a lengthy [[debate]] between those who believe the dragon is a fact of life and those who believe the dragon can and should be destroyed, the dragon is finally killed. Bostrom argues that [[political]] inaction allowed many preventable human deaths to occur.[32]
[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transhumanist Transhumanist] philosopher Nick Bostrom has argued that any [[technological]] advances in life extension must be equitably distributed and not restricted to a privileged few.[31] In an extended [[metaphor]] entitled "The Fable of the Dragon-Tyrant", Bostrom envisions death as a monstrous dragon who demands human sacrifices. In the fable, after a lengthy [[debate]] between those who believe the dragon is a fact of life and those who believe the dragon can and should be destroyed, the dragon is finally killed. Bostrom argues that [[political]] inaction allowed many preventable human deaths to occur.[32]
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==Further reading==
==Further reading==
===Scientific Journals===
===Scientific Journals===
* Holzenberger M, Dupont J, Ducos B, et al. (January 2003). "IGF-1 receptor regulates lifespan and resistance to oxidative stress in mice". Nature 421 (6919): 182–7. doi:10.1038/nature01298. PMID 12483226.
* Holzenberger M, Dupont J, Ducos B, et al. (January 2003). "IGF-1 receptor regulates lifespan and resistance to oxidative stress in mice". Nature 421 (6919): 182–7. doi:10.1038/nature01298. PMID 12483226.
* http://dovepress.com/articles.php?journal_id=63[dead link] Clinical Interventions in Aging Editor-in-Chief: Dr Richard F Walker. Publisher: Dove Medical Press Ltd. ISSN 1176-9092. Published Quarterly
* https://dovepress.com/articles.php?journal_id=63[dead link] Clinical Interventions in Aging Editor-in-Chief: Dr Richard F Walker. Publisher: Dove Medical Press Ltd. ISSN 1176-9092. Published Quarterly
* Rejuvenation Research Editor: Aubrey de Grey. Publisher: Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. ISSN 1549-1684 - Published Quarterly
* Rejuvenation Research Editor: Aubrey de Grey. Publisher: Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. ISSN 1549-1684 - Published Quarterly
==External links==
==External links==
* [http://www.arclab.org/ Aging Research Centre]
* [https://www.arclab.org/ Aging Research Centre]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4003063.stm Aubrey de Grey: 'We will be able to live to 1,000']
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4003063.stm Aubrey de Grey: 'We will be able to live to 1,000']
* [http://imminst.org/ Immortality Institute]
* [https://imminst.org/ Immortality Institute]
* [http://www.kurzweilai.net/news/frame.html?main=/news/news.html?cat%3D14%26d%3D0 Kurzweil Biomed/Life Extension News]
* [https://www.kurzweilai.net/news/frame.html?main=/news/news.html?cat%3D14%26d%3D0 Kurzweil Biomed/Life Extension News]
* [http://www.longevitymeme.org/articles/ Longevity Meme]
* [https://www.longevitymeme.org/articles/ Longevity Meme]
* [http://www.vitaeinstitute.org/ Vitae Institute] non-profit for developing life-extension technology through basic research
* [https://www.vitaeinstitute.org/ Vitae Institute] non-profit for developing life-extension technology through basic research
* [http://www.whyweage.com/ Why We Age - An Anti-aging and Longevity Research Resource]
* [https://www.whyweage.com/ Why We Age - An Anti-aging and Longevity Research Resource]
* [http://www.thebls.org/ The British Longevity Society]
* [https://www.thebls.org/ The British Longevity Society]
[[Category: Health]]
[[Category: Health]]
