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'''Meditation''' describes a state of concentrated [[attention]] on some object of [[thought]] or [[awareness]]. It usually involves turning the attention inward to a single point of reference.[http://www.spiritual.com.au/dictionary/dict_m.html]. The benefits of the practice can engender a higher state of consciousness. Meditation is recognized as a component of [[eastern religions]], where it has been practiced for over 5,000 years. The Bhagavad-Gita and Jivana Yoga By Ramnarayan Vyas (Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice By Mikel Burley) (Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter). Different meditative disciplines encompass a wide range of spiritual and/or psychophysical practices which can emphasize development of either a high degree of mental concentration, or the apparent converse, mental [[quiescence]].  

 

'''Meditation''' describes a state of concentrated [[attention]] on some object of [[thought]] or [[awareness]]. It usually involves turning the attention inward to a single point of reference.[http://www.spiritual.com.au/dictionary/dict_m.html Spiritual Dictionary]. Retrieved on:[[August 21]], [[2007]]The benefits of the practice can engender a higher state of consciousness. Meditation is recognized as a component of [[eastern religions]], where it has been practiced for over 5,000 years. The Bhagavad-Gita and Jivana Yoga By Ramnarayan Vyas (Hatha Yoga: Its Context, Theory and Practice By Mikel Burley) (Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China By Heinrich Dumoulin, James W. Heisig, Paul F. Knitter). Different meditative disciplines encompass a wide range of spiritual and/or psychophysical practices which can emphasize development of either a high degree of mental concentration, or the apparent converse, mental [[quiescence]].  

The word meditation comes from the [[Latin]] ''meditatio'', which originally indicated every type of physical or intellectual exercise, then later evolved into the more specific meaning "[[contemplation]]."  

The word meditation comes from the [[Latin]] ''meditatio'', which originally indicated every type of physical or intellectual exercise, then later evolved into the more specific meaning "[[contemplation]]."  

Eastern spiritual teachings, including meditation, have been adapted and increasingly practiced in [[Western world|Western]] culture. (The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 22|pages=pp. 149-166)

Eastern spiritual teachings, including meditation, have been adapted and increasingly practiced in [[Western world|Western]] culture. (The Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 22|pages=pp. 149-166)

== Forms of meditation==

== Forms of meditation==

The [[Bahá'í Faith]] teaches that meditation is necessary for spiritual growth, alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] is quoted as saying:

The [[Bahá'í Faith]] teaches that meditation is necessary for spiritual growth, alongside obligatory prayer and fasting. [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] is quoted as saying:

<blockquote>"Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."<ref>{{cite book |author = `Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink = `Abdu'l-Bahá |origyear = 1912 |year = 1995 |title = Paris Talks  |pages = p. 175 |publisher = Bahá'í Distribution Service |id = ISBN 1870989570 |url = http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PT/pt-55.html }}</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>"Meditation is the key for opening the doors of mysteries to your mind. In that state man abstracts himself: in that state man withdraws himself from all outside objects; in that subjective mood he is immersed in the ocean of spiritual life and can unfold the secrets of things-in-themselves."[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PT/pt-55.html]</blockquote>

Although the Founder of the Faith, [[Bahá'u'lláh]], never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá ([[Arabic]]: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by [[ablution]]s. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' ([[Arabic]]: بهاء‎  "splendor" or "glory") which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God".

Although the Founder of the Faith, [[Bahá'u'lláh]], never specified any particular forms of meditation, some Bahá'í practices are meditative. One of these is the daily repetition of the Arabic phrase Alláhu Abhá ([[Arabic]]: الله ابهى) (God is Most Glorious) 95 times preceded by [[ablution]]s. Abhá has the same root as Bahá' ([[Arabic]]: بهاء‎  "splendor" or "glory") which Bahá'ís consider to be the "Greatest Name of God".

===Buddhism===

===Buddhism===

Meditation has always been central to Buddhism. The [[Gautama Buddha|historical Buddha]] himself was said to have achieved [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] while meditating under a [[Bodhi tree]]. Most forms of Buddhism distinguish between two classes of meditation practices, [[shamatha]] and [[vipassana]], both of which are necessary for attaining enlightenment. The former consists of practices aimed at developing the ability to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter includes practices aimed at developing insight and wisdom through seeing the true nature of reality. The differentiation between the two types of meditation practices is not always clear cut, which is made obvious when studying practices such as [[Anapanasati]] which could be said to start off as a shamatha practice but that goes through a number of stages and ends up as a vipassana practice.

Meditation has always been central to Buddhism. The [[Buddha]] himself was said to have achieved enlightenment while meditating under a [[Bodhi]] tree. Most forms of [[Buddhism]] distinguish between two classes of meditation practices, [[shamatha]] and [[vipassana]], both of which are necessary for attaining enlightenment. The former consists of practices aimed at developing the ability to focus the attention single-pointedly; the latter includes practices aimed at developing [[insight]] and [[wisdom]] through seeing the true [[nature]] of [[reality]]. The differentiation between the two types of meditation practices is not always clear cut, which is made obvious when studying practices such as [[Anapanasati]] which could be said to start off as a shamatha practice but that goes through a number of stages and ends up as a vipassana practice.

[[Theravada]] Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of [[mindfulness]] (''sati'', see for example the ''[[Satipatthana Sutta]]'') and concentration (''[[samadhi (Buddhism)|samadhi]]'', see ''[[kammatthana]]''), as part of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], in the pursuit of ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]'' (Nirvana).  Traditional popular meditation subjects include the breath (''[[anapana]]'') and loving-kindness (''[[mettā]]'').

[[Theravada]] Buddhism emphasizes the meditative development of mindfulness (''sati'', see for example the ''[[Satipatthana Sutta]]'') and concentration (''[[samadhi]]'', see ''[[kammatthana]]''), as part of the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], in the pursuit of ''[[Nirvana|Nibbana]]'' (Nirvana).  Traditional popular meditation subjects include the breath (''[[anapana]]'') and loving-kindness (''[[mettā]]'').

In Japanese [[Mahayana]] schools, [[Tendai]] (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly structured ritual. Especially in the Chinese [[Chán]] Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese [[Zen]], and Korean [[Seon]] schools), [[Zazen|ts'o ch'an]] meditation and [[koan]] meditation practices allow a practitioner to directly experience the true nature of [[reality]] (each of the names of these schools derives from the Sanskrit [[dhyana]], and translates into "meditation" in their respective languages). The [[esoteric]] [[Shingon]] sect shares many features with [[Tibetan Buddhism]].

In Japanese [[Mahayana]] schools, [[Tendai]] (Tien-tai), concentration is cultivated through highly [[structure]]d [[ritual]]. Especially in the Chinese [[Chán]] Buddhism school (which branched out into the Japanese [[Zen]], and Korean [[Seon]] schools), [[Zazen|ts'o ch'an]] meditation and [[koan]] meditation practices allow a practitioner to directly [[experience]] the true nature of [[reality]] (each of the names of these schools derives from the Sanskrit [[dhyana]], and translates into "meditation" in their respective languages). The [[esoteric]] [[Shingon]] sect shares many features with [[Tibetan Buddhism]].

[[Tibetan Buddhism]] ([[Vajrayana]]) emphasizes [[tantra]] for its senior practitioners; hence its alternate name of Tantrayana Buddhism. Many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, but are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy. In this tradition, the purpose of meditation is to awaken the sky-like nature of mind, and to introduce practitioners to that which they really are: unchanging pure awareness, which underlies the whole of life and death.<ref name = Sogyal>Sogyal, Rinpoche (1994) ''The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying.'' Patrick Gaffney and Andrew Harvey eds. New York: Harper Collins.</ref><ref>[http://www.mandala.hr/1/groundpathfruit.html Ground, Path, and Fruition: Mind-Nature Teachings Concerning the View, Meditation, and Action of Dzogpa Chenpo, the Innate Great Perfection]. Compiled by Surya Das with Nyoshul Khenpo. Retrieved on; [[August 25]], [[2007]].</ref>

[[Tibetan Buddhism]] ([[Vajrayana]]) emphasizes [[tantra]] for its senior practitioners; hence its alternate name of Tantrayana Buddhism. Many monks go through their day without "meditating" in a recognizable form, but are more likely to chant or participate in group liturgy. In this tradition, the purpose of meditation is to awaken the sky-like nature of [[mind]], and to introduce practitioners to that which they really are: unchanging pure awareness, which underlies the whole of life and death.[http://www.mandala.hr/1/groundpathfruit.html]. Compiled by Surya Das with Nyoshul Khenpo.  

   

   

Meditation is the way to bring us back to ourselves, where we can really experience and taste our full being, beyond all habitual patterns. In the stillness and silence of meditation, we glimpse and return to that deep inner nature that we have so long ago lost sight of amid the busyness and distraction of our minds.

Meditation is the way to bring us back to ourselves, where we can really experience and taste our full being, beyond all habitual patterns. In the '''stillness''' and [[silence]] of meditation, we glimpse and return to that deep inner nature that we have so long ago lost sight of amid the busyness and distraction of our minds.

<blockquote>

<blockquote>

''The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life.  For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment.''- [[Sogyal Rinpoche]], ''[[The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying]]''<ref name = Sogyal />

''The gift of learning to meditate is the greatest gift you can give yourself in this life.  For it is only through meditation that you can undertake the journey to discover your true nature, and so find the stability and confidence you will need to live, and die, well. Meditation is the road to enlightenment.''- [[Sogyal Rinpoche]], ''[[The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying]]''

</blockquote>

</blockquote>

Most [[Schools of Buddhism|Buddhist traditions]] recognize that the path to [[bodhi|Enlightenment]] entails three types of [[Threefold training|training]]: virtue (''[[sīla]]''); meditation (''citta''); and, wisdom (''[[prajna|paññā]]'').<ref>For instance, from the [[Pali Canon]], see [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 44 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.044.than.html (Thanissaro, 1998a)] and [[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 3:88 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.088.than.html (Thanissaro, 1998b).]  In Mahayana tradition, the [[Lotus Sutra]] lists the [[Paramita|Six Perfections]] (''paramita'') which echoes the threefold training with the inclusion of virtue (''[[Sila|śīla]]''), concentration (''[[Dhyana|dhyāna]]'') and wisdom (''[[Prajna|prajñā]]'').</ref> Thus, meditative prowess alone is not sufficient; it is but one part of the path.  In other words, in Buddhism, in tandem with mental cultivation, ethical development and wise understanding are also necessary for the attainment of the highest goal.<ref>Dharmacarini Manishini, ''Western Buddhist Review.'' [http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/kamma_in_context.html]

Most Buddhist traditions recognize that the path to Enlightenment entails three types of training: virtue (''sīla''); meditation (''citta''); and, wisdom (''[[prajna|paññā]]''). For instance, from the [[Pali Canon]], see [[Majjhima Nikaya|MN]] 44 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.044.than.html] and [[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]] 3:88 [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.088.than.html (Thanissaro, 1998b).]  In Mahayana tradition, the [[Lotus Sutra]] lists the Six Perfections (''paramita'') which echoes the threefold training with the inclusion of virtue (''Sila|śīla''), concentration (''[[Dhyana|dhyāna]]'') and wisdom (''[[Prajna|prajñā]]'').  Thus, meditative prowess alone is not sufficient; it is but one part of the path.  In other words, in Buddhism, in tandem with mental cultivation, ethical development and wise understanding are also necessary for the attainment of the highest goal. [http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol4/kamma_in_context.html]

===Christianity===

===Christianity===

===Judaism===

===Judaism===

There is evidence that Judaism has had meditative practices that go back thousands of years.<ref name = Shapiro>Shapiro, R. [http://members.tripod.com/shulamit18/id65.htm#a_brief_introduction_to_jewish A Brief Introduction to Jewish Meditation]. tripod.com. Retrieved on: [[August 25]], [[2007]].</ref> For instance, in the [[Torah]], the patriarch [[Isaac]] is described as going "לשוח" (''lasuach'') in the field&mdash;a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice ([[Genesis]] 24:63).

There is evidence that Judaism has had meditative practices that go back thousands of years.[http://members.tripod.com/shulamit18/id65.htm#a_brief_introduction_to_jewish]. For instance, in the [[Torah]], the patriarch [[Isaac]] is described as going "לשוח" (''lasuach'') in the field - a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice ([[Genesis]] 24:63).

Similarly, there are indications throughout the [[Tanach]] (the Hebrew [[Bible]]) that meditation was central to the prophets.<ref name = Shapiro /> In the [[Old Testament]], there are two [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words for meditation: ''hāgâ'' ({{lang-he|הגה}}), which means ''to sigh'' or ''murmur'', but also ''to meditate'', and ''{{unicode|sîḥâ}}'' ({{lang-he|שיחה}}), which means ''to muse'', or ''rehearse in one's mind''.

Similarly, there are indications throughout the [[Tanach]] (the Hebrew [[Bible]]) that meditation was central to the prophets. In the [[Old Testament]], there are two [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words for meditation: ''hāgâ'' (הגה), which means ''to sigh'' or ''murmur'', but also ''to meditate'', and ''sîḥâ'' (שיחה), which means ''to muse'', or ''rehearse in one's mind''.

In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called ''hitbodedut'' (התבודדות) or ''hisbodedus'' is explained in [[Kabbalah]] and [[Hassidic]] philosophy. The word ''hisbodedut'', which derives from the Hebrew word "boded", בודד (a state of being alone) and said to be related to the sfirah of Binah (lit. book of understanding), means the process of making oneself understand a concept well through analytical study.

In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called ''hitbodedut'' (התבודדות) or ''hisbodedus'' is explained in [[Kabbalah]] and [[Hassidic]] philosophy. The word ''hisbodedut'', which derives from the Hebrew word "boded", בודד (a state of being alone) and said to be related to the sfirah of Binah (lit. book of understanding), means the process of making oneself understand a concept well through analytical study.

===New Age===

===New Age===

New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as Yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the west meditation found its mainstream roots through the [[hippie]]- [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]] social revolution of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional [[Religion|belief systems.]] <ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html The Hippies 1968-07]</ref>

New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy and mysticism such as Yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the west meditation found its mainstream roots through the [[hippie]]- [[Counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]] social revolution of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional [[belief]] systems. [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html The Hippies 1968-07]

===Sikhism===

===Sikhism===

In [[Sikhism]], the practices of [[simran]] and [[Nām Japō]] encourage quiet meditation. This is focusing one's attention on the attributes of God. Sikhs believe that there are 10 'gates' to the body; 'gates' is another word for 'chakras' or energy centres. The top most energy level is the called the tenth gate or dasam dwar. It is said{{Who|date=June 2007}} that when one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.

In [[Sikhism]], the practices of [[simran]] and [[Nām Japō]] encourage quiet meditation. This is focusing one's attention on the attributes of God. Sikhs believe that there are 10 'gates' to the body; 'gates' is another word for 'chakras' or energy centres. The top most energy level is the called the tenth gate or dasam dwar. It is said that when one reaches this stage through continuous practice meditation becomes a habit that continues whilst walking, talking, eating, awake and even sleeping. There is a distinct taste or flavour when a meditator reaches this lofty stage of meditation, as one experiences absolute peace and tranquility inside and outside the body.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householder's life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, the latter of which being a popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.

Followers of the Sikh religion also believe that love comes through meditation on the lord's name since meditation only conjures up positive emotions in oneself which are portrayed through our actions. The first Guru of the Sikhs, Guru Nanak Dev Ji preached the equality of all humankind and stressed the importance of living a householder's life instead of wandering around jungles meditating, the latter of which being a popular practice at the time. The Guru preached that we can obtain liberation from life and death by living a totally normal family life and by spreading love amongst every human being regardless of religion.

=== Other ===

=== Other ===

====Meditation according to Krishnamurti====

====Meditation according to Krishnamurti====

[[J Krishnamurti]] used the word meditation to mean something entirely different from the practice of any system or method to control the mind. He said, “Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will, and the urge for achievement, and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious, deliberate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind, and in this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation. Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different dimension which is beyond time.” For Krishnamurti, meditation was choiceless awareness in the present. He said "..When you learn about yourself, watch yourself, watch the way you walk, how you eat, what you say, the gossip, the hate, the jealousy - if you are aware of all that in yourself, without any choice, that is part of meditation."<ref>Krishnamurti Foundation Trust. [http://www.omalpha.com/jardin/krishnamurti-en.html Meditation]. From Chapter 15 of ''Freedom from the Known,'' J. Krishnamurti (1969) Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-064808-2.

[[J Krishnamurti]] used the word meditation to mean something entirely different from the practice of any system or method to control the mind. He said, “Man, in order to escape his conflicts, has invented many forms of meditation. These have been based on desire, will, and the urge for achievement, and imply conflict and a struggle to arrive. This conscious, deliberate striving is always within the limits of a conditioned mind, and in this there is no freedom. All effort to meditate is the denial of meditation. Meditation is the ending of thought. It is only then that there is a different dimension which is beyond time.” For Krishnamurti, meditation was choiceless awareness in the present. He said "..When you learn about yourself, watch yourself, watch the way you walk, how you eat, what you say, the gossip, the hate, the jealousy - if you are aware of all that in yourself, without any choice, that is part of meditation." Krishnamurti Foundation Trust. [http://www.omalpha.com/jardin/krishnamurti-en.html Meditation]. From Chapter 15 of ''Freedom from the Known,'' J. Krishnamurti (1969) Harper and Row. ISBN 0-06-064808-2.

====Active/dynamic meditation====

====Active/dynamic meditation====

[[Dynamic Meditation]] is the name of one of [[Osho]]'s popular [[Active Meditation]] techniques. However, in general active/dynamic meditation refers to any meditation technique which does not have one's body assuming a static posture. Such techniques are widely used in [[Karma Yoga]].{{fact|date=December 2007}} An example of such activity could be [[Natya Yoga]] or a [[Shamanistic]] dance, such as described by [[Carlos Castaneda]] or simple exercises that focus on certain parts of the body "to give you the power to profoundly affect your mental and physical state directly and quickly".

[[Dynamic Meditation]] is the name of one of [[Osho]]'s popular [[Active Meditation]] techniques. However, in general active/dynamic meditation refers to any meditation technique which does not have one's body assuming a static posture. Such techniques are widely used in [[Karma Yoga]]. An example of such activity could be [[Natya Yoga]] or a [[Shamanistic]] dance, such as described by [[Carlos Castaneda]] or simple exercises that focus on certain parts of the body "to give you the power to profoundly affect your mental and physical state directly and quickly".

[[Osho]], earlier named [[Rajneesh]], introduced the meditation techniques which he termed [[Active Meditation]]s, which begin with a stage of activity — sometimes intense and physical — followed by a period of silence. He emphasized that meditation is ''not'' concentration. [[Dynamic Meditation]] involves a conscious catharsis where one can throw out all the repressions, express what is not easily expressible in society, and then easily go into silence. Some of his techniques also have a stage of spontaneous dance. He said that, "If people are innocent there is no need for [[Dynamic Meditation]]. But if people are repressed, psychologically are carrying a lot of burden, then they need catharsis. So Dynamic Meditation is just to help them clean the place. And then they can use any method ... It will not be difficult. If they, right now, directly try, they will fail." <ref>''The Last Testament'', Vol. 3, Chapter 19</ref>

[[Osho]], earlier named [[Rajneesh]], introduced the meditation techniques which he termed [[Active Meditation]]s, which begin with a stage of activity — sometimes intense and physical — followed by a period of silence. He emphasized that meditation is ''not'' concentration. [[Dynamic Meditation]] involves a conscious catharsis where one can throw out all the repressions, express what is not easily expressible in society, and then easily go into silence. Some of his techniques also have a stage of spontaneous dance. He said that, "If people are innocent there is no need for [[Dynamic Meditation]]. But if people are repressed, psychologically are carrying a lot of burden, then they need catharsis. So Dynamic Meditation is just to help them clean the place. And then they can use any method ... It will not be difficult. If they, right now, directly try, they will fail."  

[[Sri Aurobindo]] used to meditate while walking.  

[[Sri Aurobindo]] used to meditate while walking.  

The 1999 book ''The Calm Technique: Meditation Without Magic or Mysticism'' by Paul Wilson has a discussion and instruction in a form of secular meditation.

The 1999 book ''The Calm Technique: Meditation Without Magic or Mysticism'' by Paul Wilson has a discussion and instruction in a form of secular meditation.

[[Biofeedback]] has been tried by many researchers since the 1950s as a way to enter deeper states of mind.<ref>[http://www.eaglelife.com/biofeedbackmeditation.html The Healing History of EEG Biofeedback] Eagle Life Communications Accessed March 2007 .</ref>

[[Biofeedback]] has been tried by many researchers since the 1950s as a way to enter deeper states of mind. [http://www.eaglelife.com/biofeedbackmeditation.html] Eagle Life Communications Accessed March 2007.

Primordial Sound Meditation is an ancient meditation technique with its origins in the Vedic tradition of India. It has been modernized and revitalized by Drs. [[Deepak Chopra]] and David Simon of the [http://www.chopra.com Chopra Center for Wellbeing]. It is a silent mantra meditation that uses primordial sounds (sounds of nature) that are linguistically structured and used to bring awareness to more and more subtle levels of thought.

Primordial Sound Meditation is an ancient meditation technique with its origins in the Vedic tradition of India. It has been modernized and revitalized by Drs. [[Deepak Chopra]] and David Simon of the [http://www.chopra.com]. It is a silent mantra meditation that uses primordial [[sound]]s (sounds of [[nature]]) that are [[Linguistics|linguistically]] [[structure]]d and used to bring awareness to more and more subtle levels of [[thought]].

====Meditation using beads====

====Meditation using beads====

==== Acoustic and photic ====

==== Acoustic and photic ====

Newer forms of meditation are based on the results of [[EEG|EEG (electro-encephalogram)]] work in long-term meditators. Studies have demonstrated the presence of a [[frequency]]-following response to auditory and visual stimuli. This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period (cycles per second) corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus. Stated plainly, if the stimulus is 5 [[Hz]] the resulting measured EEG will show a 5&nbsp;Hz frequency-following response using appropriate time-domain averaging protocols.

Newer forms of meditation are based on the results of EEG (electro-encephalogram) work in long-term meditators. Studies have demonstrated the presence of a [[frequency]]-following response to auditory and visual stimuli. This EEG activity was termed "frequency-following response" because its period (cycles per second) corresponds to the fundamental frequency of the stimulus. Stated plainly, if the stimulus is 5 Hz the resulting measured EEG will show a 5-Hz frequency-following response using appropriate time-domain averaging protocols.

==Meditation in a Western context==

==Meditation in a Western context==

"Meditation" in its modern sense refers to Yogic meditation that originated in India. In the late nineteenth century, [[Theosophy|Theosophists]] adopted the word "meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]] and other [[Eastern religions]]. Thus the English word "meditation" does not exclusively translate to any single term or concept, and can be used to translate words such as the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[dhyana]]'', ''[[samadhi]]'' and ''[[bhavana]]''.

"Meditation" in its modern sense refers to Yogic meditation that originated in India. In the late nineteenth century, [[Theosophy|Theosophists]] adopted the word "meditation" to refer to various spiritual practices drawn from [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Sikhism]] and other [[Eastern religions]]. Thus the [[English]] word "meditation" does not exclusively translate to any single term or concept, and can be used to translate words such as the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[dhyana]]'', ''[[samadhi]]'' and ''[[bhavana]]''.

Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought to the West it was used in secular contexts, such as the [[martial arts]]. Beginning with the Theosophists, though, meditation has been employed in the West by a number of religious and spiritual movements, such as [[Yoga]] , [[New Age]] and the [[New Thought]]  movement, as well as limited use in Christianity.  

Meditation may be for a religious purpose, but even before being brought to the West it was used in secular contexts, such as the [[martial arts]]. Beginning with the Theosophists, though, meditation has been employed in the West by a number of religious and [[spiritual]] [[movement]]s, such as [[Yoga]] , [[New Age]] and the [[New Thought]]  movement, as well as limited use in [[Christianity]].  

From the point of view of [[psychology]] and [[physiology]], meditation can induce an [[altered state of consciousness]], and its goals in that context have been stated to achieving spiritual [[enlightenment]], to the transformation of attitudes, and to better [[cardiovascular]] health.

From the point of view of [[psychology]] and [[physiology]], meditation can induce an altered state of [[consciousness]], and its goals in that [[context]] have been stated to achieving [[spiritual]] enlightenment, to the transformation of attitudes, and to better [[cardiovascular]] health.

== Physical postures ==

== Physical postures ==

Different spiritual traditions, and different teachers within those traditions, prescribe or  suggest different physical postures for meditation. Sitting, supine, and standing<ref name=Marshall>{{cite web | last = Marshall | first = Chris | title = Paradoxes of Standing Meditation | url = http://www.martialdevelopment.com/blog/four-paradoxes-of-standing-meditation/ | accessdate = 2007-10-23 }}</ref> postures are used.  Most famous are the several cross-legged sitting postures, including the [[Lotus Position]].  

Different spiritual traditions, and different teachers within those traditions, prescribe or  suggest different physical postures for meditation. Sitting, supine, and standing [http://www.martialdevelopment.com/blog/four-paradoxes-of-standing-meditation/] postures are used.  Most famous are the several cross-legged sitting postures, including the [[Lotus Position]].  

=== Spine ===

=== Spine ===

Many meditative traditions teach that the [[vertebral column|spine]] should be kept "straight" (i.e. that the meditator should not slouch). Often this is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what some call "spiritual energy," the "vital breath", the "life force" (Sanskrit ''prana'', Chinese ''[[qi]]'', Latin ''spiritus'') or the [[Kundalini]].  In some traditions the meditator may sit on a chair, flat-footed (as in [[New Thought]]); sit on a stool (as in [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]]); or walk in mindfulness (as in [[Theravada]] Buddhism). Some traditions suggest being [[barefoot]], for comfort, for convenience, or for spiritual reasons.  

Many meditative traditions teach that the spine should be kept "straight" (i.e. that the meditator should not slouch). Often this is explained as a way of encouraging the circulation of what some call "spiritual energy," the "vital breath", the "life force" (Sanskrit ''prana'', Chinese ''[[qi]]'', Latin ''spiritus'') or the [[Kundalini]].  In some traditions the meditator may sit on a chair, flat-footed (as in [[New Thought]]); sit on a stool (as in Orthodox Christianity); or walk in mindfulness (as in [[Theravada]] Buddhism). Some traditions suggest being barefoot, for comfort, for convenience, or for spiritual reasons.  

Other traditions, such as those related to [[kundalini yoga]], take a less formal approach. While the basic practice in these traditions is also to sit still quietly in a traditional posture, they emphasize the possibility of [[kriyas]] - spontaneous yogic postures, changes in breathing patterns or emotional states, or perhaps repetitive physical movements such as swaying, etc., which may naturally arise as the practitioner sits in meditation, and which should not be resisted but rather allowed to express themselves in order to enhance the natural flow of energy through the body. This is said to help purify the [[nadis]] and ultimately deepen one's meditative practice.

Other traditions, such as those related to [[kundalini yoga]], take a less formal approach. While the basic practice in these traditions is also to sit still quietly in a traditional posture, they emphasize the possibility of [[kriyas]] - spontaneous yogic postures, changes in breathing patterns or emotional states, or perhaps repetitive physical movements such as swaying, etc., which may naturally arise as the practitioner sits in meditation, and which should not be resisted but rather allowed to express themselves in order to enhance the natural flow of energy through the body. This is said to help purify the [[nadis]] and ultimately deepen one's meditative practice.

=== Mudra/Hand ===  

=== Mudra/Hand ===  

Various hand-gestures or [[mudra]]s may be prescribed. These can carry theological meaning or according to Yogic philosophy can actually affect consciousness. For example, a common Buddhist hand-position is with the right hand resting atop the left (like the Buddha's begging bowl), with the thumbs touching.

Various hand-gestures or [[mudra]]s may be prescribed. These can carry theological meaning or according to Yogic philosophy can actually affect [[consciousness]]. For example, a common Buddhist hand-position is with the right hand resting atop the left (like the Buddha's begging bowl), with the thumbs touching.

=== Eyes ===

=== Eyes ===

== Health applications and clinical studies of meditation ==

== Health applications and clinical studies of meditation ==

The [[medicine|medical]] community has studied the [[physiological]] effects of meditation<ref>Venkatesh S, Raju TR, Shivani Y, Tompkins G, Meti BL. (1997) ''A study of structure of phenomenology of consciousness in meditative and non-meditative states. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol.'' 1997 Apr;41(2): 149–53. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 9142560</ref><ref>Peng CK, Mietus JE, Liu Y, Khalsa G, Douglas PS, Benson H, Goldberger AL. (1999) ''Exaggerated heart rate oscillations during two meditation techniques. Int J Cardiol.'' 1999 Jul 31;70(2):101–7. [[PubMed]] Abstract PMID 10454297</ref><ref name = Lazar>Lazar, S.W.; Bush, G.; Gollub, R. L.; Fricchione, G. L.; Khalsa, G.; Benson, H. ''Functional brain mapping of the relaxation response and meditation" ''NeuroReport'': Volume 11(7) [[15 May]] [[2000]] pp. 1581–1585 [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 10841380</ref><ref>Carlson LE, Ursuliak Z, Goodey E, Angen M, Speca M. (2001) ''The effects of a mindfulness meditation-based stress reduction program on mood and symptoms of stress in cancer outpatients: 6-month follow-up''. Support Care Cancer. 2001 Mar;9(2):112-23.[[PubMed]] abstract PMID 11305069</ref> Many concepts of meditation have been applied to clinical settings in order to measure its effect on [[somatic motor function]] as well as [[cardiovascular]] and [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] function. Also the [[hermeneutic]] and [[phenomenological]] aspects of meditation are areas of growing interest. Meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of [[stress (medicine)|stress]] and [[Pain and nociception|pain]] reduction. In 1976, the Australian psychiatrist [[Ainslie Meares]], reported in the ''Medical Journal of Australia,'' the regression of cancer following intensive meditation. Meares wrote a number of books on the subject, including his best-seller ''Relief without Drugs.''

The medical community has studied the physiological effects of meditation. Many concepts of meditation have been applied to clinical settings in order to measure its effect on somatic motor function as well as cardiovascular and respiratory function. Also the [[hermeneutic]] and [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] aspects of meditation are areas of growing interest. Meditation has entered the mainstream of health care as a method of stress and pain reduction. In 1976, the Australian psychiatrist [[Ainslie Meares]], reported in the ''Medical Journal of Australia,'' the regression of cancer following intensive meditation. Meares wrote a number of books on the subject, including his best-seller ''Relief without Drugs.''

As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce complications associated with increased stress including a depressed [[immune system]].  There is growing agreement in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, and there is a growing movement in mainstream science to fund research in this area (e.g. the establishment by the [[NIH]] in the U.S. of 5 research centers to research the mind-body aspects of disease.)

As a method of stress reduction, meditation is often used in hospitals in cases of chronic or terminal illness to reduce complications associated with increased stress including a depressed immune system.  There is growing agreement in the medical community that mental factors such as stress significantly contribute to a lack of physical health, and there is a growing movement in mainstream [[science]] to fund research in this area (e.g. the establishment by the [[National Institutes of Heath|NIH]] in the U.S. of 5 research centers to research the mind-body aspects of disease.)

[[Dr. James Austin]], a neurophysiologist at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder|University of Colorado]], reported that [[Zen]] meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain in his landmark book ''Zen and the Brain'' (Austin, 1999). This has been confirmed using [[functional MRI]] imaging which examines the activity of the brain.

[[Dr. James Austin]], a neurophysiologist at the University of Colorado, reported that Zen meditation rewires the circuitry of the brain in his landmark book ''Zen and the Brain'' (Austin, 1999). This has been confirmed using functional MRI imaging which examines the activity of the brain.

Dr. [[Herbert Benson]] of the [[Mind Body Medical Institute|Mind-Body Medical Institute]], which is affiliated with [[Harvard]] and several [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "[[relaxation response]]."<ref name = Lazar/> The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains.

Dr. [[Herbert Benson]] of the Mind-Body Medical Institute, which is affiliated with Harvard and several Boston hospitals, reports that meditation induces a host of biochemical and physical changes in the body collectively referred to as the "[[relaxation response]]." The relaxation response includes changes in metabolism, heart rate, respiration, blood pressure and brain chemistry. Benson and his team have also done clinical studies at Buddhist monasteries in the Himalayan Mountains.

Other studies within this field include the research of [[Jon Kabat-Zinn]] and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts who have studied the effects of [[mindfulness]] meditation on stress.

Other studies within this field include the research of [[Jon Kabat-Zinn]] and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts who have studied the effects of "mindfulness" meditation on stress.

===Potential hazards===

===Potential hazards===

There is anecdotal evidence that meditation can cause some people to experience psychotic episodes, particularly in those with a history of mental illness, or those who submit themselves to long meditation retreats without prior meditation experience.<ref>[http://www.thehumanist.org/humanist/MaryGarden.html Can Meditation Be Bad for You?]</ref>

There is anecdotal evidence that meditation can cause some people to [[experience]] psychotic episodes, particularly in those with a [[history]] of mental illness, or those who submit themselves to long meditation retreats without prior meditation experience. [http://www.thehumanist.org/humanist/MaryGarden.html Can Meditation Be Bad for You?]

==Meditation in popular fiction==

==Meditation in popular fiction==

Various forms of [[meditation]] have been described in popular culture sources.  In particular, [[science fiction]] stories such as [[Frank Herbert]]'s ''[[Dune]]'', [[Star Trek]], [[Star Wars]], and [[Stargate SG-1]] have featured characters who practice one form of meditation or another.  Usually these practices are inspired by real-world meditation traditions, but sometimes they have very different methods and purposes.

Various forms of [[meditation]] have been described in popular culture sources.  In particular, [[science fiction]] stories such as [[Frank Herbert]]'s ''[[Dune]]'', [[Star Trek]], [[Star Wars]], and [[Stargate SG-1]] have featured characters who practice one form of meditation or another.  Usually these practices are inspired by real-world meditation traditions, but sometimes they have very different methods and purposes.

==References==

==References==

*American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.

*American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.

* Austin, James H. (1999) ''Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness'', Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 0-262-51109-6

* Austin, James H. (1999) ''Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness'', Cambridge: MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 0-262-51109-6

* [[Azeemia|Azeemi]], Khawaja Shamsuddin Azeemi (2005) ''Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation''. Houston: Plato, 2005, ISBN 0-9758875-4-8

* Azeemi, Khawaja Shamsuddin Azeemi (2005) ''Muraqaba: The Art and Science of Sufi Meditation''. Houston: Plato, 2005, ISBN 0-9758875-4-8

* Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001) ''Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart,'' Harmony Books, ISBN 0-609-60752-9

* Bennett-Goleman, T. (2001) ''Emotional Alchemy: How the Mind Can Heal the Heart,'' Harmony Books, ISBN 0-609-60752-9

* Benson, Herbert and Miriam Z. Klipper. (2000 [1972]). The Relaxation Response. Expanded Updated edition. Harper. ISBN 0380815958

* Benson, Herbert and Miriam Z. Klipper. (2000 [1972]). The Relaxation Response. Expanded Updated edition. Harper. ISBN 0380815958

* Craven JL. (1989) ''Meditation and psychotherapy.'' Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Oct;34(7):648-53. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 2680046

* Craven JL. (1989) ''Meditation and psychotherapy.'' Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Oct;34(7):648-53. PubMed abstract PMID 2680046

* Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG. (1999) ''Acceptance and Commitment Therapy''. New York: Guilford Press.

* Hayes SC, Strosahl KD, Wilson KG. (1999) ''Acceptance and Commitment Therapy''. New York: Guilford Press.

* Kutz I, Borysenko JZ, Benson H. (1985) ''Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation''. American Journal of Psychiatry, Jan;142(1):1-8. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 3881049

* Kutz I, Borysenko JZ, Benson H. (1985) ''Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation''. American Journal of Psychiatry, Jan;142(1):1-8. PubMed abstract PMID 3881049

* Lazar, Sara W. (2005) "Mindfulness Research." In: Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. Germer C, Siegel RD, Fulton P (eds.) New York: Guildford Press.  

* Lazar, Sara W. (2005) "Mindfulness Research." In: Mindfulness and Psychotherapy. Germer C, Siegel RD, Fulton P (eds.) New York: Guildford Press.  

* Lukoff, David; Lu Francis G. & Turner, Robert P. (1998) ''From Spiritual Emergency to Spiritual Problem: The Transpersonal Roots of the New DSM-IV Category''. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38(2), 21-50

* Lukoff, David; Lu Francis G. & Turner, Robert P. (1998) ''From Spiritual Emergency to Spiritual Problem: The Transpersonal Roots of the New DSM-IV Category''. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 38(2), 21-50

* Metzner R. (2005) Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness. In ''Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience'', Chap. 2. Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* Metzner R. (2005) Psychedelic, Psychoactive and Addictive Drugs and States of Consciousness. In ''Mind-Altering Drugs: The Science of Subjective Experience'', Chap. 2. Mitch Earlywine, ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

* MirAhmadi, As Sayed Nurjan Healing Power of Sufi Meditation The Healing Power of Sufi Meditation Paperback: 180 pages Publisher: Islamic Supreme Council of America (June 30, 2005) Language: English

* MirAhmadi, As Sayed Nurjan Healing Power of Sufi Meditation The Healing Power of Sufi Meditation Paperback: 180 pages Publisher: Islamic Supreme Council of America (June 30, 2005) Language: English

* Nirmalananda Giri, Swami (2007) [http://www.atmajyoti.org/med_om_yoga_download_1.asp Om Yoga: It's Theory and Practice] In-depth study of the classical meditation method of the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and the Upanishads.

* Nirmalananda Giri, Swami (2007) [http://www.atmajyoti.org/med_om_yoga_download_1.asp] In-depth study of the classical meditation method of the Bhagavad Gita, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, and the Upanishads.

* Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto & Holmes, Jeremy (2000) Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy. International Journal of Psychotherapy, March 2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1, p49, 10p

* Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto & Holmes, Jeremy (2000) Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy. International Journal of Psychotherapy, March 2000, Vol. 5 Issue 1, p49, 10p

* Shalif, I. et al. (1985) [http://www.etext.org/Psychology/Shalif/emotions ''Focusing on the Emotions of Daily Life''] (Tel-Aviv: Etext Archives, 1990)

* Shalif, I. et al. (1985) [http://www.etext.org/Psychology/Shalif/emotions ''Focusing on the Emotions of Daily Life''] (Tel-Aviv: Etext Archives, 1990)

* Shapiro DH Jr. (1992) ''Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators''. Int. Journal of Psychosom. 39(1-4):62-7. [[PubMed]] abstract PMID 1428622

* Shapiro DH Jr. (1992) ''Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators''. Int. Journal of Psychosom. 39(1-4):62-7. PubMed abstract PMID 1428622

* [[Sogyal Rinpoche]], ''[[The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying]]'', ISBN 0-06-250834-2

* [[Sogyal Rinpoche]], ''[[The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying]]'', ISBN 0-06-250834-2

*[[Charles Tart|Tart, Charles T.]], editor. ''Altered States of Consciousness'' (1969) ISBN 0-471-84560-4

*[[Charles Tart|Tart, Charles T.]], editor. ''Altered States of Consciousness'' (1969) ISBN 0-471-84560-4

[[Category:Religion]]

[[Category:Religion]]