Changes

**vmansfield@colgate.edu

**vmansfield@colgate.edu

==Publication==

==Publication==

[http://www.lightlink.com/vic/cosmo.html Spring: A Journal of Archetypes and Culture Fall and Winter], 1999, pp. 83-100

[https://www.lightlink.com/vic/cosmo.html Spring: A Journal of Archetypes and Culture Fall and Winter], 1999, pp. 83-100

==Text==

==Text==

"An [[archetypal]] [[content]] expresses itself, first and foremost, in [[metaphors]]."  C. G. Jung[1]

"An [[archetypal]] [[content]] expresses itself, first and foremost, in [[metaphors]]."  C. G. Jung[1]

Many years ago a classmate of mine began his teaching career with night classes at a large city [[university]]. He told me that some of his introductory [[astronomy]] students actually got dramatic [[nightmares]] after learning how the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the [[Sun]]. Some of the hippest city kids in the late twentieth-century were having their world turned upside down by the three-hundred-year-old [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_Revolution Copernican Revolution]. These nightmares show that even for [[modern]] urban dwellers, who rarely even see the [[night sky]], our cosmological view does matter to us. It does help define us and our [[relationship]] to [[nature]]. Even more important, I'll show how modern cosmology, the standard [[big-bang]] theory, can function as a true [[metaphor]]-one that can go far beyond provoking our dream life.

Many years ago a classmate of mine began his teaching career with night classes at a large city [[university]]. He told me that some of his introductory [[astronomy]] students actually got dramatic [[nightmares]] after learning how the Earth rotates on its axis and revolves around the [[Sun]]. Some of the hippest city kids in the late twentieth-century were having their world turned upside down by the three-hundred-year-old [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_Revolution Copernican Revolution]. These nightmares show that even for [[modern]] urban dwellers, who rarely even see the [[night sky]], our cosmological view does matter to us. It does help define us and our [[relationship]] to [[nature]]. Even more important, I'll show how modern cosmology, the standard [[big-bang]] theory, can function as a true [[metaphor]]-one that can go far beyond provoking our dream life.

One of the chief results issuing from the analysis of the cosmological metaphor is the essential double [[nature]] of [[soul]] as both divisible and indivisible, or functioning through a multiplicity of images in the world and simultaneously fully unified in its [[self]]-gathered nature. To deepen this [[idea]] I appeal to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus Plotinus], the greatest [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplantonism Neoplatonist]. As I'll show, modern cosmology provides a metaphor that helps us hold these seemingly contradictory aspects of soul together. We can thereby more fully appreciate the [[essence]] of soul and see how it must [[express]] itself simultaneously in [[polytheism]] and [[monotheism]] and in the inner and outer worlds. Perhaps through this metaphorical use of modern [[science]] we can see that it is not just a dehumanizing activity for the [[manipulation]] of [[nature]], but one with a rich symbolic structure that affords [[insights]] into our deepest psychological and spiritual realities.

One of the chief results issuing from the analysis of the cosmological metaphor is the essential double [[nature]] of [[soul]] as both divisible and indivisible, or functioning through a multiplicity of images in the world and simultaneously fully unified in its [[self]]-gathered nature. To deepen this [[idea]] I appeal to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus Plotinus], the greatest [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplantonism Neoplatonist]. As I'll show, modern cosmology provides a metaphor that helps us hold these seemingly contradictory aspects of soul together. We can thereby more fully appreciate the [[essence]] of soul and see how it must [[express]] itself simultaneously in [[polytheism]] and [[monotheism]] and in the inner and outer worlds. Perhaps through this metaphorical use of modern [[science]] we can see that it is not just a dehumanizing activity for the [[manipulation]] of [[nature]], but one with a rich symbolic structure that affords [[insights]] into our deepest psychological and spiritual realities.

*Invisible Mass and Unconscious Compensation

*Invisible Mass and Unconscious Compensation

In the last half century astronomers have developed the [[big bang]] model for the [[birth]], [[evolution]], and [[death]] of the universe. Modern cosmology solidly rests on the interplay between [[Einstein]]'s elegant theory of [[general relativity]] and observations from a variety of dazzling modern [[telescopes]]. Nevertheless, I'll show that like all earlier cosmologies, it has [[archetypal]] and [[mythological]] dimensions. In standard big bang cosmology the universe began about fifteen billion years ago in an unimaginably hot and dense sea of [[elementary particles]] and then expanded, cooling, and forming [[galaxies]] that still recede from each other today.

In the last half century astronomers have developed the [[big bang]] model for the [[birth]], [[evolution]], and [[death]] of the universe. Modern cosmology solidly rests on the interplay between [[Einstein]]'s elegant theory of [[general relativity]] and observations from a variety of dazzling modern [[telescopes]]. Nevertheless, I'll show that like all earlier cosmologies, it has [[archetypal]] and [[mythological]] dimensions. In standard big bang cosmology the universe began about fifteen billion years ago in an unimaginably hot and dense sea of [[elementary particles]] and then expanded, cooling, and forming [[galaxies]] that still recede from each other today.

Early in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_century this century], it was learned that the average mass [[density]] of the universe (the mass per volume) was the critical [[parameter]] determining the ultimate [[fate]] of the universe. If the average density is smaller than a defined critical value, found by a combination of [[theory]] and [[experiment]], then the universe expands forever; all galaxies endlessly recede from each other, [[eventually]] cooling into the dead cinders left from stellar evolution. On the other hand, if the density is greater than the critical value, the recession stops and [[reverses]]. The galaxies then fall back together at ever-increasing [[velocities]] into a cosmic inferno-the "big crunch." Thus the average mass density of the [[universe]] determines whether it ends with a whimper or a bang, or more properly a diffuse, deathly cold universe or a fiery, [[cataclysmic]] big crunch.

Early in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_century this century], it was learned that the average mass [[density]] of the universe (the mass per volume) was the critical [[parameter]] determining the ultimate [[fate]] of the universe. If the average density is smaller than a defined critical value, found by a combination of [[theory]] and [[experiment]], then the universe expands forever; all galaxies endlessly recede from each other, [[eventually]] cooling into the dead cinders left from stellar evolution. On the other hand, if the density is greater than the critical value, the recession stops and [[reverses]]. The galaxies then fall back together at ever-increasing [[velocities]] into a cosmic inferno-the "big crunch." Thus the average mass density of the [[universe]] determines whether it ends with a whimper or a bang, or more properly a diffuse, deathly cold universe or a fiery, [[cataclysmic]] big crunch.

*Hubble Space Telescope image of M100

*Hubble Space Telescope image of M100

[[File:M100_100.jpg|right|frame]]

[[File:M100_100.jpg|right|frame]]

In the last couple of decades it has become firmly established that the visible universe-everything seen by employing the entire [[electromagnetic]] [[spectrum]], from radio wavelengths to gamma rays-represents less than one-tenth of the total [[mass]] of the universe. For example, the spiral galaxy, shown in the photograph, is overwhelmingly composed of unseen or nonradiating [[matter]]. The visible universe, of consuming interest to us since our [[Neanderthal]] ancestors gazed heavenward, is truly like the tip of an [[iceberg]]. There are typically one hundred billion stars in a galaxy and about ten billion galaxies in the visible universe, yet all these galaxies, stars, and gas clouds seen in any part of the electromagnetic spectrum make up only from one-hundredth to one-tenth of the total mass of the universe.

In the last couple of decades it has become firmly established that the visible universe-everything seen by employing the entire [[electromagnetic]] [[spectrum]], from radio wavelengths to gamma rays-represents less than one-tenth of the total [[mass]] of the universe. For example, the spiral galaxy, shown in the photograph, is overwhelmingly composed of unseen or nonradiating [[matter]]. The visible universe, of consuming interest to us since our [[Neanderthal]] ancestors gazed heavenward, is truly like the tip of an [[iceberg]]. There are typically one hundred billion stars in a galaxy and about ten billion galaxies in the visible universe, yet all these galaxies, stars, and gas clouds seen in any part of the electromagnetic spectrum make up only from one-hundredth to one-tenth of the total mass of the universe.

Since the great invisible bulk of the [[universe]] largely determines the average [[density]], the invisible matter largely decides both the [[evolution]] and ultimate fate of the universe. Modern [[studies]] also suggest that our universe has an average density equal to the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_density_(cosmology)#Density_parameter critical density]. If the density is critical, then even if the luminous part of the universe is one-hundredth of the [[total]], its presence is still crucial. This is because a little more or less of the visible matter would change the total to above or below the critical value.

Since the great invisible bulk of the [[universe]] largely determines the average [[density]], the invisible matter largely decides both the [[evolution]] and ultimate fate of the universe. Modern [[studies]] also suggest that our universe has an average density equal to the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_density_(cosmology)#Density_parameter critical density]. If the density is critical, then even if the luminous part of the universe is one-hundredth of the [[total]], its presence is still crucial. This is because a little more or less of the visible matter would change the total to above or below the critical value.

Given that the great bulk of the universe is invisible, how do we know it is present? The [[gravitational]] effects on the visible [[matter]] imply the presence of the invisible matter. For example, gravitational effects on the [[motions]] of [[galaxies]] and clusters of galaxies imply the presence of enormous amounts of invisible matter.

Given that the great bulk of the universe is invisible, how do we know it is present? The [[gravitational]] effects on the visible [[matter]] imply the presence of the invisible matter. For example, gravitational effects on the [[motions]] of [[galaxies]] and clusters of galaxies imply the presence of enormous amounts of invisible matter.

This modern [[cosmology]] provides a strikingly apt metaphor for the [[relationship]] between the [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] aspects of the [[psyche]]. The realm of the visible, of images, known contents, [[feelings]], [[thoughts]], and desires-[[consciousness]]-is only a [[fraction]] of the whole. Like the luminous galaxies in the universe, it is enveloped and permeated by a much larger invisible component-the unconscious.

This modern [[cosmology]] provides a strikingly apt metaphor for the [[relationship]] between the [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] aspects of the [[psyche]]. The realm of the visible, of images, known contents, [[feelings]], [[thoughts]], and desires-[[consciousness]]-is only a [[fraction]] of the whole. Like the luminous galaxies in the universe, it is enveloped and permeated by a much larger invisible component-the unconscious.

Just as invisible matter [[dominates]] the physical [[evolution]] of the universe, so does the invisible [[unconscious]] dominate psychological evolution. Yet consciousness plays a critical role because the unconscious is often [[reacting]] to it. Although our interest in visible or reflective consciousness has consumed us, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_psychology depth psychology] has clearly shown that the [[dark]], invisible aspect of the psyche-the unconscious-is the [[wisdom]] and [[power]] directing our evolution.

Just as invisible matter [[dominates]] the physical [[evolution]] of the universe, so does the invisible [[unconscious]] dominate psychological evolution. Yet consciousness plays a critical role because the unconscious is often [[reacting]] to it. Although our interest in visible or reflective consciousness has consumed us, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_psychology depth psychology] has clearly shown that the [[dark]], invisible aspect of the psyche-the unconscious-is the [[wisdom]] and [[power]] directing our evolution.

Just as the cosmologists infer the [[presence]] of the invisible matter by studying the detailed [[behavior]] of the visible matter, we infer the presence of the [[unconscious]] by carefully observing its effects upon [[consciousness]]. In cosmology, the gravitational interaction governs the interplay between visible and invisible matter, while in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_psychology Jungian psychology] the interaction between consciousness and the unconscious is largely governed by unconscious compensation-the "self regulation of the psyche," which [[Jung]] tells us is the central guiding force for [[individuation]].

Just as the cosmologists infer the [[presence]] of the invisible matter by studying the detailed [[behavior]] of the visible matter, we infer the presence of the [[unconscious]] by carefully observing its effects upon [[consciousness]]. In cosmology, the gravitational interaction governs the interplay between visible and invisible matter, while in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungian_psychology Jungian psychology] the interaction between consciousness and the unconscious is largely governed by unconscious compensation-the "self regulation of the psyche," which [[Jung]] tells us is the central guiding force for [[individuation]].

As a rule, the unconscious content contrasts strikingly with the conscious [[material]], particularly when the conscious [[attitude]] tends too exclusively in a direction that would threaten the [[vital]] needs of the [[individual]]. The more one-sided his conscious attitude is, and the further it deviates from the optimum, the greater becomes the possibility that vivid [[dreams]] with a strongly contrasting but purposive content will appear as an [[expression]] of the self-regulation of the psyche.

As a rule, the unconscious content contrasts strikingly with the conscious [[material]], particularly when the conscious [[attitude]] tends too exclusively in a direction that would threaten the [[vital]] needs of the [[individual]]. The more one-sided his conscious attitude is, and the further it deviates from the optimum, the greater becomes the possibility that vivid [[dreams]] with a strongly contrasting but purposive content will appear as an [[expression]] of the self-regulation of the psyche.

The [[archetype]] of the [[self]] is the [[intelligence]] expressing itself in the [[individuation]] process. For Jung, the self is primarily the archetype of [[meaning]] and its meaning is usually infused with numinous [[feelings]]. Consciously actualizing and expressing the self's [[intent]] in life is the process of individuation.

The [[archetype]] of the [[self]] is the [[intelligence]] expressing itself in the [[individuation]] process. For Jung, the self is primarily the archetype of [[meaning]] and its meaning is usually infused with numinous [[feelings]]. Consciously actualizing and expressing the self's [[intent]] in life is the process of individuation.

In ''[http://www.amazon.com/Anima-An-Anatomy-Personified-Notion/dp/0882143166 Anima]'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hillman James Hillman] has carefully discussed the many subtleties and ways of using the terms, [[self]], [[soul]], [[anima]], and [[psyche]]. Here I use self and soul interchangeably as both the totality of the psyche and as a union of [[opposites]], as when Jung says, "I have defined the self as the totality of the [conscious] and [[unconscious]] psyche, . . ."[5] and as "a [[perfect]] ''coincidentia oppositorum'' expressing the [[divine nature]] of [[the self]]."[6] Later, when discussing the Plotinian notion of soul, we must consider it a principle extending beyond the psyche.

In ''[https://www.amazon.com/Anima-An-Anatomy-Personified-Notion/dp/0882143166 Anima]'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hillman James Hillman] has carefully discussed the many subtleties and ways of using the terms, [[self]], [[soul]], [[anima]], and [[psyche]]. Here I use self and soul interchangeably as both the totality of the psyche and as a union of [[opposites]], as when Jung says, "I have defined the self as the totality of the [conscious] and [[unconscious]] psyche, . . ."[5] and as "a [[perfect]] ''coincidentia oppositorum'' expressing the [[divine nature]] of [[the self]]."[6] Later, when discussing the Plotinian notion of soul, we must consider it a principle extending beyond the psyche.

Although the personal [[realization]] of such an [[impersonal]] intelligence superior to our [[ego]], to our personal will, that guides our [[evolution]] through unconscious compensation, is one of the greatest joys of the [[inner life]], it is much more than the psychological equivalent of the [[Copernican Revolution]]. Merely replacing the [[Earth]] by the visible, localized [[Sun]] as the center of our universe does not adequately symbolize the invisible, nonlocalized unconscious guiding consciousness toward [[individuation]]. The metaphor of the invisible mass that pervades the entire universe and [[guides]] its [[evolution]] is a better image for the soul's dynamic compensations guiding our evolution. Despite its improvement over the Copernican shift from the Earth to the Sun, it too has a significant shortcoming. The [[difficulty]] springs from the image of a pervasive invisible matter, which misleadingly implies that this [[intelligence]], the [[self]] or [[soul]], is spread out [[uniformly]] in space. Despite our [[materialistic]] tendencies, [[the soul]] is not in [[space or time]]. As we will see in the next section, [[big-bang]] cosmology provides a much more apt metaphor than the Copernican view. In modern cosmology the pervasive invisible matter generates a curvature to the [[spacetime]] geometry of the universe that provides a powerful metaphor for soul. Perhaps using it we can better understand the relation between the invisible, nonlocalized soul and our finite centers of [[consciousness]] that go through the individuation process.

Although the personal [[realization]] of such an [[impersonal]] intelligence superior to our [[ego]], to our personal will, that guides our [[evolution]] through unconscious compensation, is one of the greatest joys of the [[inner life]], it is much more than the psychological equivalent of the [[Copernican Revolution]]. Merely replacing the [[Earth]] by the visible, localized [[Sun]] as the center of our universe does not adequately symbolize the invisible, nonlocalized unconscious guiding consciousness toward [[individuation]]. The metaphor of the invisible mass that pervades the entire universe and [[guides]] its [[evolution]] is a better image for the soul's dynamic compensations guiding our evolution. Despite its improvement over the Copernican shift from the Earth to the Sun, it too has a significant shortcoming. The [[difficulty]] springs from the image of a pervasive invisible matter, which misleadingly implies that this [[intelligence]], the [[self]] or [[soul]], is spread out [[uniformly]] in space. Despite our [[materialistic]] tendencies, [[the soul]] is not in [[space or time]]. As we will see in the next section, [[big-bang]] cosmology provides a much more apt metaphor than the Copernican view. In modern cosmology the pervasive invisible matter generates a curvature to the [[spacetime]] geometry of the universe that provides a powerful metaphor for soul. Perhaps using it we can better understand the relation between the invisible, nonlocalized soul and our finite centers of [[consciousness]] that go through the individuation process.

observer sees the same linear increase of galaxy

observer sees the same linear increase of galaxy

recession velocity with its distance.</center>]]

recession velocity with its distance.</center>]]

Shortly after [[Einstein]]'s development of [[general relativity]] in 1916, astronomers discovered that the [[stars]] first seen through [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo Galileo]'s telescope were only in our [[galaxy]], which is merely one undistinguished member among billions in the universe. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubble Edwin Hubble] then discovered that distant galaxies recede from us with velocities that are [[proportional]] to their distance from us as shown in He found that in all [[directions]], the farther away the [[galaxy]], the faster it flees from us. This special motion is known as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble's_Expansion Hubble's expansion].

Shortly after [[Einstein]]'s development of [[general relativity]] in 1916, astronomers discovered that the [[stars]] first seen through [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo Galileo]'s telescope were only in our [[galaxy]], which is merely one undistinguished member among billions in the universe. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubble Edwin Hubble] then discovered that distant galaxies recede from us with velocities that are [[proportional]] to their distance from us as shown in He found that in all [[directions]], the farther away the [[galaxy]], the faster it flees from us. This special motion is known as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble's_Expansion Hubble's expansion].

A little [[reflection]] on Hubble's discovery might prompt us to ask, "Does this imply that we are at the center of the [[big bang]] expansion?" Have we overthrown geocentrism, only to find that we are at the center of cosmic expansion? Einstein's [[general relativity]] elegantly answers these questions by showing that the [[spacetime]] geometry of the universe is curved by its total mass distribution.

A little [[reflection]] on Hubble's discovery might prompt us to ask, "Does this imply that we are at the center of the [[big bang]] expansion?" Have we overthrown geocentrism, only to find that we are at the center of cosmic expansion? Einstein's [[general relativity]] elegantly answers these questions by showing that the [[spacetime]] geometry of the universe is curved by its total mass distribution.

To make this [[analogy]] more useful we need to add two refinements. First, the universe is not as [[homogeneous]] as the balloon leads us to [[believe]]. The cosmic [[neighborhood]] of each observer is unique to that region of [[spacetime]]. The detailed distribution of [[galaxies]], [[stars]], and gas varies markedly from one point to the next. For example, in our analogy there are little wrinkles, imperfections, and varying colors and [[density]] of pennies across the surface of the balloon. It is not perfectly [[spherical]], each part inflates at a slightly different [[rate]], and so forth. Second, despite these local variations, the universe has well-defined average properties. In our analogy, over a distance that covers a significant [[fraction]] of the balloon's surface, it has a well-defined curvature, rate of inflation, density of pennies (observers), and so on. Our analogy must reflect the well-established observational [[fact]] that locally each observer sees a slightly different picture, but that on a large enough scale the universe is exceedingly homogeneous or smooth. In short, we need to account for local [[differences]] and global homogeneity.

To make this [[analogy]] more useful we need to add two refinements. First, the universe is not as [[homogeneous]] as the balloon leads us to [[believe]]. The cosmic [[neighborhood]] of each observer is unique to that region of [[spacetime]]. The detailed distribution of [[galaxies]], [[stars]], and gas varies markedly from one point to the next. For example, in our analogy there are little wrinkles, imperfections, and varying colors and [[density]] of pennies across the surface of the balloon. It is not perfectly [[spherical]], each part inflates at a slightly different [[rate]], and so forth. Second, despite these local variations, the universe has well-defined average properties. In our analogy, over a distance that covers a significant [[fraction]] of the balloon's surface, it has a well-defined curvature, rate of inflation, density of pennies (observers), and so on. Our analogy must reflect the well-established observational [[fact]] that locally each observer sees a slightly different picture, but that on a large enough scale the universe is exceedingly homogeneous or smooth. In short, we need to account for local [[differences]] and global homogeneity.

Those with a taste for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra algebra] can easily show that, while the balloon is blowing up, each two-dimensional observer stationed on a penny sees all other pennies expanding away from it with the same Hubble expansion. That is, each penny sees the others receding from it with a [[velocity]] that increases with the two-dimensional distance between the pennies, just like in the figure. (Remember, we measure distances on the curved surface of the balloon.) In [[cosmology]], once observers reach out beyond their [[neighborhood]] with its local peculiarities, all observers see the same Hubble expansion. Since this is true for any and all pennies, it shows that no observer is the true center of cosmic expansion. Despite local variations, modern cosmology removes all [[privilege]], all uniqueness, from our position in the universe. It has truly completed the [[Copernican Revolution]]. Now we are no more central nor privileged than any other cosmic observer. Equivalently, each observer can rightly claim to be at the center of the universe.

Those with a taste for [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra algebra] can easily show that, while the balloon is blowing up, each two-dimensional observer stationed on a penny sees all other pennies expanding away from it with the same Hubble expansion. That is, each penny sees the others receding from it with a [[velocity]] that increases with the two-dimensional distance between the pennies, just like in the figure. (Remember, we measure distances on the curved surface of the balloon.) In [[cosmology]], once observers reach out beyond their [[neighborhood]] with its local peculiarities, all observers see the same Hubble expansion. Since this is true for any and all pennies, it shows that no observer is the true center of cosmic expansion. Despite local variations, modern cosmology removes all [[privilege]], all uniqueness, from our position in the universe. It has truly completed the [[Copernican Revolution]]. Now we are no more central nor privileged than any other cosmic observer. Equivalently, each observer can rightly claim to be at the center of the universe.

Perhaps this [[equality]] of all observers, seen so dramatically in [[cosmology]], is reflected in our growing appreciation of [[diversity]] at all levels. No particular [[gender]], [[race]], [[culture]], or political [[orientation]] is inherently privileged. Yes, by historical [[accident]] vast inequalities have arisen, but these do not spring from any intrinsic privilege built into the gender or race or culture. Of course, it's a great challenge to honor diversity without degenerating into lack of [[judgment]] and moral [[relativity]]. This is especially so because of our complete [[fascination]] with one observer-our ego-and our innate [[belief]] that it does have privilege.

Perhaps this [[equality]] of all observers, seen so dramatically in [[cosmology]], is reflected in our growing appreciation of [[diversity]] at all levels. No particular [[gender]], [[race]], [[culture]], or political [[orientation]] is inherently privileged. Yes, by historical [[accident]] vast inequalities have arisen, but these do not spring from any intrinsic privilege built into the gender or race or culture. Of course, it's a great challenge to honor diversity without degenerating into lack of [[judgment]] and moral [[relativity]]. This is especially so because of our complete [[fascination]] with one observer-our ego-and our innate [[belief]] that it does have privilege.

We cannot deny the psychological [[truth]] that each of us experiences ourselves as the center of our psychological drama. We relate all our experience to our ego, our center of empirical [[consciousness]]. Yet coming to wholeness, or the [[process]] of [[individuation]], implies that the ego is not the true subject, is not the true director of psychological life. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensation_%28psychology%29 Unconscious compensation], for example, could not occur if the ego were the true intelligence guiding our evolution. In fact, the ego requires the unconscious compensation and is subject to the [[corrections]], guidance, and [[inspiration]] of a nonlocalized intelligence-[[the self]] or [[soul]]. The psychological experience of the ego's centrality finds a reflection in every cosmic observer (each penny) seeing herself as the center of a Hubble expansion. In truth she is only one of an infinite number of equivalent [[focal points]] generated by an unimaginably larger [[motion]]. Analogously, we believe that our ego is the center of psychological movement when in fact it is only a limited reflection of the soul's indefinitely larger motion.

We cannot deny the psychological [[truth]] that each of us experiences ourselves as the center of our psychological drama. We relate all our experience to our ego, our center of empirical [[consciousness]]. Yet coming to wholeness, or the [[process]] of [[individuation]], implies that the ego is not the true subject, is not the true director of psychological life. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compensation_%28psychology%29 Unconscious compensation], for example, could not occur if the ego were the true intelligence guiding our evolution. In fact, the ego requires the unconscious compensation and is subject to the [[corrections]], guidance, and [[inspiration]] of a nonlocalized intelligence-[[the self]] or [[soul]]. The psychological experience of the ego's centrality finds a reflection in every cosmic observer (each penny) seeing herself as the center of a Hubble expansion. In truth she is only one of an infinite number of equivalent [[focal points]] generated by an unimaginably larger [[motion]]. Analogously, we believe that our ego is the center of psychological movement when in fact it is only a limited reflection of the soul's indefinitely larger motion.

The balloon [[analogy]] also shows that the universe (the two-dimensional surface) is not exploding from a geometric [[center]] like the bomb dropped over [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima Hiroshima]. Each point in the two-dimensional space (not just the locations of the pennies) is the center of its own expansion. Now you may object that the balloon's expansion does have a center-the center of the balloon. But we are supposed to be two-dimensional creatures and not jump off the spherical surface! Notice that if we stay in the two-dimensional curved surface of the balloon it has no edges, no places where this space ends. [[Future]] astronauts need not fear an edge to space like the crew of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus Christopher Columbus]. The curved four-dimensional spacetime of our universe contains all there is in both space and time. We have a cosmic [[uroboros]] with neither edges nor a center of expansion.

The balloon [[analogy]] also shows that the universe (the two-dimensional surface) is not exploding from a geometric [[center]] like the bomb dropped over [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima Hiroshima]. Each point in the two-dimensional space (not just the locations of the pennies) is the center of its own expansion. Now you may object that the balloon's expansion does have a center-the center of the balloon. But we are supposed to be two-dimensional creatures and not jump off the spherical surface! Notice that if we stay in the two-dimensional curved surface of the balloon it has no edges, no places where this space ends. [[Future]] astronauts need not fear an edge to space like the crew of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Columbus Christopher Columbus]. The curved four-dimensional spacetime of our universe contains all there is in both space and time. We have a cosmic [[uroboros]] with neither edges nor a center of expansion.

From our modern [[perspective]], we can see that the awareness of being the center of our own [[experience]], of relating all [[thoughts]], [[feelings]], and outer and inner [[adventures]] to our ego, was merely being projected into geocentric [[cosmology]]. We unconsciously transformed egocentric psychology into geocentric cosmology. In contrast, the heliocentric view implied that the perceived [[motions]] of the [[Sun]], [[stars]], and planets across the sky were actually due to our [[Earth]]'s movement, to our [[rotation]] and revolution about the Sun. The Earth's motion, rather than the heavenly body's, causes the [[illusion]] of a setting Sun or a rising Moon. This was the first major scientific [[revelation]] of the unreliability of [[appearances]].

From our modern [[perspective]], we can see that the awareness of being the center of our own [[experience]], of relating all [[thoughts]], [[feelings]], and outer and inner [[adventures]] to our ego, was merely being projected into geocentric [[cosmology]]. We unconsciously transformed egocentric psychology into geocentric cosmology. In contrast, the heliocentric view implied that the perceived [[motions]] of the [[Sun]], [[stars]], and planets across the sky were actually due to our [[Earth]]'s movement, to our [[rotation]] and revolution about the Sun. The Earth's motion, rather than the heavenly body's, causes the [[illusion]] of a setting Sun or a rising Moon. This was the first major scientific [[revelation]] of the unreliability of [[appearances]].

When we appreciate this [[Copernican Revolution]] psychologically and realize how our inner [[psychological]] [[motions]] condition and [[distort]] our experience, how our projections shape the world, then we begin to break out of the egocentric position. When we learn the power of our complexes to project their own contents unconsciously then we make the first tentative steps toward the psychological equivalent of the Copernican Revolution. When we finally realize that the ego is not the true center of psychological life, that a superior [[wisdom]] is ordering our [[inner life]] of [[dreams]] and [[fantasies]] and guiding our [[individuation]] through unconscious compensation, then we make the transition from an egocentric to a self-centric attitude, the psychological equivalent of the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism.

When we appreciate this [[Copernican Revolution]] psychologically and realize how our inner [[psychological]] [[motions]] condition and [[distort]] our experience, how our projections shape the world, then we begin to break out of the egocentric position. When we learn the power of our complexes to project their own contents unconsciously then we make the first tentative steps toward the psychological equivalent of the Copernican Revolution. When we finally realize that the ego is not the true center of psychological life, that a superior [[wisdom]] is ordering our [[inner life]] of [[dreams]] and [[fantasies]] and guiding our [[individuation]] through unconscious compensation, then we make the transition from an egocentric to a self-centric attitude, the psychological equivalent of the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism.

As mentioned above, the Copernican Revolution presents difficulties as a [[psychological]] [[metaphor]]. For example, although far more [[glorious]] and the center of the [[solar system]], the Sun is still another spherical body like the Earth localized in [[spacetime]]. The use of the invisible matter that dynamically guides the evolution of the universe as an image for unconscious compensation is a useful step. However, it suffers from being too concrete, from wrongly implying that the [[soul]] pervades [[space]]. But the self or soul, the guiding intelligence [[manifesting]] in our movement toward wholeness, is neither localized nor in spacetime. The overall expansion described in modern cosmology provides a much better image. It [[simultaneously]] accounts for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Law Hubble Law] seen by local observers and the uniqueness of each observer (analogous to our egocentrism) and yet has neither a center for the expansion nor an edge to the [[spacetime]]. Although the ego falsely believes itself to be the center of experience, we are actually a small aspect of a greater motion, one without a center or whose center is not in our spacetime.

As mentioned above, the Copernican Revolution presents difficulties as a [[psychological]] [[metaphor]]. For example, although far more [[glorious]] and the center of the [[solar system]], the Sun is still another spherical body like the Earth localized in [[spacetime]]. The use of the invisible matter that dynamically guides the evolution of the universe as an image for unconscious compensation is a useful step. However, it suffers from being too concrete, from wrongly implying that the [[soul]] pervades [[space]]. But the self or soul, the guiding intelligence [[manifesting]] in our movement toward wholeness, is neither localized nor in spacetime. The overall expansion described in modern cosmology provides a much better image. It [[simultaneously]] accounts for the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Law Hubble Law] seen by local observers and the uniqueness of each observer (analogous to our egocentrism) and yet has neither a center for the expansion nor an edge to the [[spacetime]]. Although the ego falsely believes itself to be the center of experience, we are actually a small aspect of a greater motion, one without a center or whose center is not in our spacetime.

In [[psychological]] terms, the true and inclusive subject, the [[intelligence]] guiding our life, is the self or [[soul]] that includes the [[ego]] and all else within it. Perhaps we can get some additional help understanding this by using an analogy that Anthony Damiani[7] often used. For this analogy, don't consider dreams as [[symbolic]] windows into the psyche, but rather as [[epistemological]] lessons in how we know and what we know. Just as the larger dreaming [[mind]] animates and contains the characters and objects in a dream, the larger expansion generates and contains the particular observer's Hubble expansion. In this [[analogy]] the dreaming mind, like the balloon surface, has no edge in either space or time. If we try-while in the dream-to [[imagine]] a time before the dream or a space outside it, we automatically bring them within the dream as another dream content. In this way, the dreaming mind has no edge in either space or time, just like the cosmological metaphor implies that the [[soul]] has no edge, that no place and no time exist where soul is not. Yet, we allow the ego its place without taking it as the true center of life.

In [[psychological]] terms, the true and inclusive subject, the [[intelligence]] guiding our life, is the self or [[soul]] that includes the [[ego]] and all else within it. Perhaps we can get some additional help understanding this by using an analogy that Anthony Damiani[7] often used. For this analogy, don't consider dreams as [[symbolic]] windows into the psyche, but rather as [[epistemological]] lessons in how we know and what we know. Just as the larger dreaming [[mind]] animates and contains the characters and objects in a dream, the larger expansion generates and contains the particular observer's Hubble expansion. In this [[analogy]] the dreaming mind, like the balloon surface, has no edge in either space or time. If we try-while in the dream-to [[imagine]] a time before the dream or a space outside it, we automatically bring them within the dream as another dream content. In this way, the dreaming mind has no edge in either space or time, just like the cosmological metaphor implies that the [[soul]] has no edge, that no place and no time exist where soul is not. Yet, we allow the ego its place without taking it as the true center of life.

A fuller [[comprehension]] of [[soul]] demands that we appreciate its double nature-both the [[ego]]'s centrality and the uniqueness of its perspective alongside the larger motion of the soul from which it springs. Simultaneously holding on to these [[complementary]] and apparently conflicting views is admittedly difficult and I hope the cosmological metaphor helps.

A fuller [[comprehension]] of [[soul]] demands that we appreciate its double nature-both the [[ego]]'s centrality and the uniqueness of its perspective alongside the larger motion of the soul from which it springs. Simultaneously holding on to these [[complementary]] and apparently conflicting views is admittedly difficult and I hope the cosmological metaphor helps.

To amplify this double nature of soul, let me turn to MacKenna's translation of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus Plotinus], which James Hillman tells us "has been for near to forty years the most instructive and [[inspiring]] single volume in my library. It is a source of the deepest [[ideas]] the mind can think; it is also a bible of [[beauty]]."[8] After summarizing some aspects of the Plotinian view of soul, I will discuss how this connects to the Jungian notion of [[self]].

To amplify this double nature of soul, let me turn to MacKenna's translation of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plotinus Plotinus], which James Hillman tells us "has been for near to forty years the most instructive and [[inspiring]] single volume in my library. It is a source of the deepest [[ideas]] the mind can think; it is also a bible of [[beauty]]."[8] After summarizing some aspects of the Plotinian view of soul, I will discuss how this connects to the Jungian notion of [[self]].

*Plotinus on the Essence of Soul

*Plotinus on the Essence of Soul

Although much of the greatest [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism Neoplatonist]'s writings concern [[soul]], none is more central to his [[vision]] then Ennead 4, tractates 1 and 2, entitled "''On the Essence of the Soul'' (I and II)". In both parts I and II he draws [[inspiration]] from the famous section in [[Plato]]'s [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus Timaeus] that discusses the double nature of soul. For Plotinus, the soul's undivided or unified nature derives from having its origin in the [[Supreme]], in the Intellectual-Principle or realm of Authentic Essence. There all principles are fully united and eternally unvaried. Yet soul even at its summit has a nature lending itself to divided [[existence]], to multiplicity and change. For Plotinus the essence of soul consists in always having both of these [[contrary]] natures at every level. In IV.1.1 Plotinus[9] says:

Although much of the greatest [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoplatonism Neoplatonist]'s writings concern [[soul]], none is more central to his [[vision]] then Ennead 4, tractates 1 and 2, entitled "''On the Essence of the Soul'' (I and II)". In both parts I and II he draws [[inspiration]] from the famous section in [[Plato]]'s [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaeus Timaeus] that discusses the double nature of soul. For Plotinus, the soul's undivided or unified nature derives from having its origin in the [[Supreme]], in the Intellectual-Principle or realm of Authentic Essence. There all principles are fully united and eternally unvaried. Yet soul even at its summit has a nature lending itself to divided [[existence]], to multiplicity and change. For Plotinus the essence of soul consists in always having both of these [[contrary]] natures at every level. In IV.1.1 Plotinus[9] says:

"The Intellectual-Principle is forever repugnant to [[distinction]] and to partition. Soul there without distinction and partition, has yet a nature lending itself to divisional [[existence]]: its secession, entry into [[body]].

"The Intellectual-Principle is forever repugnant to [[distinction]] and to partition. Soul there without distinction and partition, has yet a nature lending itself to divisional [[existence]]: its secession, entry into [[body]].

. . . it is an [[essence]] eternally unvaried: it is common to all that follows upon it: it is like the circle's centre to which all the radii are attached while leaving it unbrokenly in possession of itself, the starting-point of their [[course]] and of their essential being, the ground in which they all participate: thus the indivisible is the principle of these divided existences and in their very outgoing they remain enduringly in contact with that stationary essence. (IV.2.1)

. . . it is an [[essence]] eternally unvaried: it is common to all that follows upon it: it is like the circle's centre to which all the radii are attached while leaving it unbrokenly in possession of itself, the starting-point of their [[course]] and of their essential being, the ground in which they all participate: thus the indivisible is the principle of these divided existences and in their very outgoing they remain enduringly in contact with that stationary essence. (IV.2.1)

The [[circle]] [[analogy]] of Plotinus can be amplified by considering a turning chariot wheel, like those that rolled through the streets of second-century [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria#Layout_of_the_ancient_city Alexandria]. Then the nonrotating center of the circle is analogous to the undivided essence or unity of [[soul]] that remains intact, motionless, while it's radii reach down to the rotating [[circumference]] of the wheel, to our moving sphere of sense and division. The difficulty with both his original geometric [[analogy]] and my amplification is that, although the [[center]] has a different nature than a [[radius]], they are both visible objects sharing the same natures inherent in all such objects in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry Euclidean geometry]. Although my amplification has the [[virtue]] of bringing rotation into the picture and thereby distinguishing more fully the still center from its moving [[radii]] and [[circumference]], in fact both center and radii move as the wheel rolls by a stationary observer.

The [[circle]] [[analogy]] of Plotinus can be amplified by considering a turning chariot wheel, like those that rolled through the streets of second-century [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria#Layout_of_the_ancient_city Alexandria]. Then the nonrotating center of the circle is analogous to the undivided essence or unity of [[soul]] that remains intact, motionless, while it's radii reach down to the rotating [[circumference]] of the wheel, to our moving sphere of sense and division. The difficulty with both his original geometric [[analogy]] and my amplification is that, although the [[center]] has a different nature than a [[radius]], they are both visible objects sharing the same natures inherent in all such objects in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry Euclidean geometry]. Although my amplification has the [[virtue]] of bringing rotation into the picture and thereby distinguishing more fully the still center from its moving [[radii]] and [[circumference]], in fact both center and radii move as the wheel rolls by a stationary observer.

Perhaps appeal to the modern [[cosmology]] just sketched will provide a little more help. Let's stay with our curved two-dimensional analog to the actual curved four-dimensional spacetime. In the cosmological expansion each individual observer-each unique center of observation-is a limited or divided [[expression]] of an indivisible motion of the whole, of the expansion of the entire [[sphere]]. Inherent in each individual observer and her Hubble expansion is the generating motion of the sphere's expansion, the intrinsic expansion of each point in [[spacetime]], which the limited observer is always expressing and with which she is always in contact. As Plotinus says above, "the indivisible is the principle of these divided existences and in their very outgoing they remain enduringly in contact with that stationary [[essence]]."

Perhaps appeal to the modern [[cosmology]] just sketched will provide a little more help. Let's stay with our curved two-dimensional analog to the actual curved four-dimensional spacetime. In the cosmological expansion each individual observer-each unique center of observation-is a limited or divided [[expression]] of an indivisible motion of the whole, of the expansion of the entire [[sphere]]. Inherent in each individual observer and her Hubble expansion is the generating motion of the sphere's expansion, the intrinsic expansion of each point in [[spacetime]], which the limited observer is always expressing and with which she is always in contact. As Plotinus says above, "the indivisible is the principle of these divided existences and in their very outgoing they remain enduringly in contact with that stationary [[essence]]."

"There is, therefore, no [[escape]]: [[soul]] is, in the degree indicated, one and many, parted and impartible. We cannot question the possibility of a [[thing]] [[being]] at once a unity and multi-present, since to deny this would be to abolish the [[principle]] which sustains and administers [[the universe]] . . ."

"There is, therefore, no [[escape]]: [[soul]] is, in the degree indicated, one and many, parted and impartible. We cannot question the possibility of a [[thing]] [[being]] at once a unity and multi-present, since to deny this would be to abolish the [[principle]] which sustains and administers [[the universe]] . . ."

How do we connect this notion of soul to the concerns of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/depth_psychology depth psychology]? When the indivisible and eternal aspect of soul reaches into the [[psyche]] and works through its [[forms]] and life processes this generates the Jungian self or soul as I used it earlier. The only aspect of soul we can know empirically in images or actions in the psyche is then the divisible soul, that being which [[reveals]] itself through the rich [[phenomena]] of the psyche. We may infer the indivisible or unitary aspect of soul, but Plotinus tells us that it cannot be grasped in a divisible form, in an [[image]]. Although the indivisible [[summit]] of soul must be approached though the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophatic_theology via negativa], its [[immanence]] in every expression of the divisible soul guarantees its [[presence]] in the least expression of the psyche.

How do we connect this notion of soul to the concerns of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/depth_psychology depth psychology]? When the indivisible and eternal aspect of soul reaches into the [[psyche]] and works through its [[forms]] and life processes this generates the Jungian self or soul as I used it earlier. The only aspect of soul we can know empirically in images or actions in the psyche is then the divisible soul, that being which [[reveals]] itself through the rich [[phenomena]] of the psyche. We may infer the indivisible or unitary aspect of soul, but Plotinus tells us that it cannot be grasped in a divisible form, in an [[image]]. Although the indivisible [[summit]] of soul must be approached though the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophatic_theology via negativa], its [[immanence]] in every expression of the divisible soul guarantees its [[presence]] in the least expression of the psyche.

The divisible aspect of soul is relatively easy to [[appreciate]]. In [[neurosis]] our [[soul]] is so painfully divided that many of us seek relief in some movement toward wholeness. On the other hand, the indivisible aspect of soul, by its very nature, is more difficult to [[appreciate]], since we can only "know" it by [[becoming]] it, by uniting with it. In this kind of knowing we can no longer proceed by image, but by becoming it in the [[silence]]. But whether we [[embrace]] the [[fecundity]] of images springing from the [[imagination]]'s boundless [[creativity]] or tread the via negativa we are always within the cosmos of [[soul]].

The divisible aspect of soul is relatively easy to [[appreciate]]. In [[neurosis]] our [[soul]] is so painfully divided that many of us seek relief in some movement toward wholeness. On the other hand, the indivisible aspect of soul, by its very nature, is more difficult to [[appreciate]], since we can only "know" it by [[becoming]] it, by uniting with it. In this kind of knowing we can no longer proceed by image, but by becoming it in the [[silence]]. But whether we [[embrace]] the [[fecundity]] of images springing from the [[imagination]]'s boundless [[creativity]] or tread the via negativa we are always within the cosmos of [[soul]].

*Soul's Double Nature and Polytheism/Monotheism

*Soul's Double Nature and Polytheism/Monotheism

In 1971, in this journal, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hillman James Hillman] ignited an animated [[discussion]] with his article "Psychology: Monotheistic or Polytheistic?"[10] Since then he and many others have carried the fruitful discussion forward to the point that it is now the subject of a very recent Ph.D dissertation[11] that comprehensively reviews the issue. I'll not survey this extensive work here. Instead, I suggest that the [[vision]] of soul at the roots of our [[culture]]-the Platonic and Neoplatonic view-encourages us to [[embrace]] fully both [[monotheism]] and [[polytheism]]. Since at every level the Plotinian soul is inherently and simultaneously an indivisible unity and a divisible plurality, our tendency toward both monotheism and polytheism is built into the [[foundation]] of our [[being]].

In 1971, in this journal, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hillman James Hillman] ignited an animated [[discussion]] with his article "Psychology: Monotheistic or Polytheistic?"[10] Since then he and many others have carried the fruitful discussion forward to the point that it is now the subject of a very recent Ph.D dissertation[11] that comprehensively reviews the issue. I'll not survey this extensive work here. Instead, I suggest that the [[vision]] of soul at the roots of our [[culture]]-the Platonic and Neoplatonic view-encourages us to [[embrace]] fully both [[monotheism]] and [[polytheism]]. Since at every level the Plotinian soul is inherently and simultaneously an indivisible unity and a divisible plurality, our tendency toward both monotheism and polytheism is built into the [[foundation]] of our [[being]].

The wholeness or unity in the Plotinian [[vision]], although inherent in every [[fragment]] of the soul's expression as divisible, has its proper station in the [[Supreme]]. This suggests that the proper emphasis in [[psychology]]-the realm of division, [[plurality]], and change-is on the divisible aspects of soul. Then psychology is inherently polytheistic and we should focus on the many loves of the soul, on its worship of sundry gods. In other words, let psychology be polytheistic and leave monotheism for [[spiritual]] concerns. An example of this view occurs in Kathleen Raine's response to Hillman's original article. There she appeals to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake Blake]'s polytheism and says, "Possibly, the Jungian system is somewhat [[confused]] through an insufficient distinction between the psychological and the spiritual levels. . . . Blake's system therefore finds a proper place for a psychological polytheism, coexistent with a spiritual monotheism; each is proper to its own level."[12]

The wholeness or unity in the Plotinian [[vision]], although inherent in every [[fragment]] of the soul's expression as divisible, has its proper station in the [[Supreme]]. This suggests that the proper emphasis in [[psychology]]-the realm of division, [[plurality]], and change-is on the divisible aspects of soul. Then psychology is inherently polytheistic and we should focus on the many loves of the soul, on its worship of sundry gods. In other words, let psychology be polytheistic and leave monotheism for [[spiritual]] concerns. An example of this view occurs in Kathleen Raine's response to Hillman's original article. There she appeals to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blake Blake]'s polytheism and says, "Possibly, the Jungian system is somewhat [[confused]] through an insufficient distinction between the psychological and the spiritual levels. . . . Blake's system therefore finds a proper place for a psychological polytheism, coexistent with a spiritual monotheism; each is proper to its own level."[12]

However, this division of the activities of soul into polytheistic [[psychology]] and monotheistic [[spirituality]] is incompatible with the [[essence]] of Plotinian soul, whose very nature is to be always and at every level both divisible and indivisible, unified and *divided. At certain stages or under special conditions one aspect of [[soul]] [[expresses]] itself more readily, but the other is always there, always ready to throw us into confusion or despair if we do not enfold both aspects of soul in our interior [[practice]] and our outer lives. Or as Jung says, "But the striving for [[unity]] is opposed by a possibly even stronger tendency to create multiplicity, so that even in strictly monotheistic religions like [[Christianity]] the polytheistic tendency cannot be suppressed."[13] Of course, this is [[symmetry]] here, for hidden within the [[heart]] of every polytheism is a demand for unity, for the movement through the many images to the one source from which they spring.

However, this division of the activities of soul into polytheistic [[psychology]] and monotheistic [[spirituality]] is incompatible with the [[essence]] of Plotinian soul, whose very nature is to be always and at every level both divisible and indivisible, unified and *divided. At certain stages or under special conditions one aspect of [[soul]] [[expresses]] itself more readily, but the other is always there, always ready to throw us into confusion or despair if we do not enfold both aspects of soul in our interior [[practice]] and our outer lives. Or as Jung says, "But the striving for [[unity]] is opposed by a possibly even stronger tendency to create multiplicity, so that even in strictly monotheistic religions like [[Christianity]] the polytheistic tendency cannot be suppressed."[13] Of course, this is [[symmetry]] here, for hidden within the [[heart]] of every polytheism is a demand for unity, for the movement through the many images to the one source from which they spring.

It might be suggested that the double nature of [[soul]] and the consequent propensity toward both [[monotheism]] and [[polytheism]] is a likely story, but not one that finds any modern expression. However, there is at least one outstanding example of a very sophisticated [[society]] and religious system that fully embraces both monotheism and polytheism: modern [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism Hinduism]. Since it is unlikely to have been strongly influenced by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantonism Platonism], the example is all the more convincing.

It might be suggested that the double nature of [[soul]] and the consequent propensity toward both [[monotheism]] and [[polytheism]] is a likely story, but not one that finds any modern expression. However, there is at least one outstanding example of a very sophisticated [[society]] and religious system that fully embraces both monotheism and polytheism: modern [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism Hinduism]. Since it is unlikely to have been strongly influenced by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plantonism Platonism], the example is all the more convincing.

Although Western [[intellectuals]] often focus on the monotheism [[inherent]] in the Atman/Brahman philosophy, the everyday religious [[reality]] is an extraordinary [[pantheon]] of gods, from those symbolized by divine personages such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva Shiva], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna Krishna], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali Kali] to those symbolized by animals such as the elephant ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganesh Ganesh]) or the monkey ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannuman Hannuman]). Their embrace of both monotheism and polytheism goes deeper than temple ornamentation and icons. Devout Hindus often focus their [[worship]] on one god, while still acknowledging the supremacy of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atman Atman].

Although Western [[intellectuals]] often focus on the monotheism [[inherent]] in the Atman/Brahman philosophy, the everyday religious [[reality]] is an extraordinary [[pantheon]] of gods, from those symbolized by divine personages such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva Shiva], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna Krishna], and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali Kali] to those symbolized by animals such as the elephant ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganesh Ganesh]) or the monkey ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannuman Hannuman]). Their embrace of both monotheism and polytheism goes deeper than temple ornamentation and icons. Devout Hindus often focus their [[worship]] on one god, while still acknowledging the supremacy of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atman Atman].

When confronted by what seemed to me a blatant [[contradiction]] between the monotheism of the [[Upanishads]] and the blatant polytheism in daily religious life, I sought refuge in the idea that monotheism and polytheism were the views of the [[elite]] and the common people respectively, that they only existed side by side, but were not actually [[integrated]]. However, questioning of both intellectuals and the humblest of worshipper lead to the same look of [[surprise]] when I expressed concern about the seeming [[contradiction]]. They found no contradiction between monotheism and polythesism and could barely relate to my concern. Without going into a detailed philosophic or religious [[analysis]] of how this could be, I merely end this section by quoting Hinduism's most revered systematizer and philosopher of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non_dualism non-dualism], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adi_Sankaracharya Adi Sankaracharya]. The sixth stanza in his [[hymn]] to Bhavani, the Divine Mother reads:

When confronted by what seemed to me a blatant [[contradiction]] between the monotheism of the [[Upanishads]] and the blatant polytheism in daily religious life, I sought refuge in the idea that monotheism and polytheism were the views of the [[elite]] and the common people respectively, that they only existed side by side, but were not actually [[integrated]]. However, questioning of both intellectuals and the humblest of worshipper lead to the same look of [[surprise]] when I expressed concern about the seeming [[contradiction]]. They found no contradiction between monotheism and polythesism and could barely relate to my concern. Without going into a detailed philosophic or religious [[analysis]] of how this could be, I merely end this section by quoting Hinduism's most revered systematizer and philosopher of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non_dualism non-dualism], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adi_Sankaracharya Adi Sankaracharya]. The sixth stanza in his [[hymn]] to Bhavani, the Divine Mother reads:

*I know neither Brahma nor Vishnu nor Shiva,

*I know neither Brahma nor Vishnu nor Shiva,

Besides polytheism and monotheism being built into the [[foundation]] of our [[being]], many other consequences follow from this double nature of [[soul]]. I'll conclude by just mentioning one that particularly troubles me.

Besides polytheism and monotheism being built into the [[foundation]] of our [[being]], many other consequences follow from this double nature of [[soul]]. I'll conclude by just mentioning one that particularly troubles me.

The inner realm of [[thought]], [[image]], and [[meditation]] is essential for any significant [[realization]] of [[soul]]. Unless we can see the [[archetypal]] dimensions of our inner life, that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite Aphrodite] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercurius Mercurius] dance through our dreams, that Mother Kali and Krishna are as alive in us as in the poor Indian villager, then our [[inner life]] is barren and without soul. The soul radiates through each inner image, as more than [[aesthetic]], but as the very outpouring of the [[divine]].

The inner realm of [[thought]], [[image]], and [[meditation]] is essential for any significant [[realization]] of [[soul]]. Unless we can see the [[archetypal]] dimensions of our inner life, that [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite Aphrodite] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercurius Mercurius] dance through our dreams, that Mother Kali and Krishna are as alive in us as in the poor Indian villager, then our [[inner life]] is barren and without soul. The soul radiates through each inner image, as more than [[aesthetic]], but as the very outpouring of the [[divine]].

But what about the [[smog]] and [[crime]]-choked inner [[city]], home to the [[students]] just now being moved by the [[Copernican Revolution]]. Is soul there, too? Am I to experience soul in the fear of inner city [[violence]], the [[barbarity]] of late twentieth-century [[terrorism]] and ethnic warfare? If soul is truly indivisible then it is as present in the outer world as in the inner. The [[realization]] of the indivisibility of soul then demands that I deify the outer world, too, that I see Aphrodite and Mercurius, Kali and Krishna in the [[ugliness]] of the mall parking lot and in the "mountain's purple [[majesty]]." But this is actually the easy part. The more difficult is that just as my soul [[journey]] requires me to tend to my interior [[expressions]] of the [[shadow]], [[anima]], and the entire [[bestiary]] of [[archetypal]] forces, then it demands that I also tend to these in the outer world. It is not enough to administer to the shadow in me, but the [[realization]] of the indivisible nature of soul demands I minister to the [[evil]] in the outer world, work with it, attempt to [[heal]] it, [[integrate]] it into the whole. Indivisible soul must not only be realized in our [[body]], but in the body of the world. Here is where I am most acutely aware that my [[theoretical]] [[knowledge]] races way ahead of my personal realization. On that chastening note, let me turn briefly to [[science]] as [[metaphor]].

But what about the [[smog]] and [[crime]]-choked inner [[city]], home to the [[students]] just now being moved by the [[Copernican Revolution]]. Is soul there, too? Am I to experience soul in the fear of inner city [[violence]], the [[barbarity]] of late twentieth-century [[terrorism]] and ethnic warfare? If soul is truly indivisible then it is as present in the outer world as in the inner. The [[realization]] of the indivisibility of soul then demands that I deify the outer world, too, that I see Aphrodite and Mercurius, Kali and Krishna in the [[ugliness]] of the mall parking lot and in the "mountain's purple [[majesty]]." But this is actually the easy part. The more difficult is that just as my soul [[journey]] requires me to tend to my interior [[expressions]] of the [[shadow]], [[anima]], and the entire [[bestiary]] of [[archetypal]] forces, then it demands that I also tend to these in the outer world. It is not enough to administer to the shadow in me, but the [[realization]] of the indivisible nature of soul demands I minister to the [[evil]] in the outer world, work with it, attempt to [[heal]] it, [[integrate]] it into the whole. Indivisible soul must not only be realized in our [[body]], but in the body of the world. Here is where I am most acutely aware that my [[theoretical]] [[knowledge]] races way ahead of my personal realization. On that chastening note, let me turn briefly to [[science]] as [[metaphor]].

Since the [[Copernican Revolution]] some three hundred years ago, [[science]] has increasingly [[alienated]] us from the [[cosmos]]. But we can reverse this trend by appreciating modern cosmology as a metaphor for some of our most [[intimate]] [[psychological]] and [[spiritual]] realities. Yes, the modern cosmological metaphor with its invisible matter curving [[spacetime]] with its universal [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_expansion Hubble expansion] is more [[abstract]] then the simpler transition from geocentric to heliocentric astronomy. Even that transition required our [[ancestors]] (and some modern urban dwellers) to think in new and disturbing ways that violated their unreflective sense [[perceptions]]. Modern cosmology, because of its more abstract nature, requires an even greater effort at re-visioning. However, this effort may restore a little of the [[wonder]] and [[devotion]] that [[Dante]] expressed seven hundred years ago in ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy The Divine Comedy]'', his magisterial cosmological [[vision]] that combined Christianity with the geocentric cosmology of his day. In Paradiso XXIV, 130-147, Dante sings of his overwhelming spiritual-cosmological vision and [[echoes]] the theme of the double nature of soul:

Since the [[Copernican Revolution]] some three hundred years ago, [[science]] has increasingly [[alienated]] us from the [[cosmos]]. But we can reverse this trend by appreciating modern cosmology as a metaphor for some of our most [[intimate]] [[psychological]] and [[spiritual]] realities. Yes, the modern cosmological metaphor with its invisible matter curving [[spacetime]] with its universal [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_expansion Hubble expansion] is more [[abstract]] then the simpler transition from geocentric to heliocentric astronomy. Even that transition required our [[ancestors]] (and some modern urban dwellers) to think in new and disturbing ways that violated their unreflective sense [[perceptions]]. Modern cosmology, because of its more abstract nature, requires an even greater effort at re-visioning. However, this effort may restore a little of the [[wonder]] and [[devotion]] that [[Dante]] expressed seven hundred years ago in ''[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Divine_Comedy The Divine Comedy]'', his magisterial cosmological [[vision]] that combined Christianity with the geocentric cosmology of his day. In Paradiso XXIV, 130-147, Dante sings of his overwhelming spiritual-cosmological vision and [[echoes]] the theme of the double nature of soul:

*I believe in one God-sole,

*I believe in one God-sole,

*and, like a [[star]] in heaven, glows in me.[15]

*and, like a [[star]] in heaven, glows in me.[15]

*Acknowledgments

*Acknowledgments

I thank Thomas McFarlane of Palo Alto, CA for his thoughtful and encouraging comments on an earlier draft of this paper. His own attempts to connect [[science]] with the [[spiritual life]] are an [[inspiration]] to me. I also wish to thank my friends at Wisdom's Goldenrod Center for Philosophic Studies. Over the years they have helped me understand [[everything]] from the profundities of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_psychology depth psychology] to the sublime mysterious of Plotinian thought. I am particularly indebted to Jonathan Bach and Richard Goldman for commenting upon an earlier draft of this paper. I especially thank my friend, the Jungian analyst Dr. Marvin Spiegelman, for his encouragement and help in understanding the subtleties of [[soul]]. My [[spouse]], Elaine, intellectual [[companion]], lover, and best friend deserves special thanks for her [[reading]] and re-reading of this manuscript and her helpful comments and encouragement throughout. My deepest debt is to Anthony Damiani, the late founder of Wisdom's Goldenrod. He lit a [[fire]] in our souls and fed it with a wide range of [[inspired]] teachings from the East and West and, most of all, taught by example the [[necessity]] of obtaining some personal [[realization]] of the truths of these great [[traditions]] and concretely expressing them in the outer world.

I thank Thomas McFarlane of Palo Alto, CA for his thoughtful and encouraging comments on an earlier draft of this paper. His own attempts to connect [[science]] with the [[spiritual life]] are an [[inspiration]] to me. I also wish to thank my friends at Wisdom's Goldenrod Center for Philosophic Studies. Over the years they have helped me understand [[everything]] from the profundities of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depth_psychology depth psychology] to the sublime mysterious of Plotinian thought. I am particularly indebted to Jonathan Bach and Richard Goldman for commenting upon an earlier draft of this paper. I especially thank my friend, the Jungian analyst Dr. Marvin Spiegelman, for his encouragement and help in understanding the subtleties of [[soul]]. My [[spouse]], Elaine, intellectual [[companion]], lover, and best friend deserves special thanks for her [[reading]] and re-reading of this manuscript and her helpful comments and encouragement throughout. My deepest debt is to Anthony Damiani, the late founder of Wisdom's Goldenrod. He lit a [[fire]] in our souls and fed it with a wide range of [[inspired]] teachings from the East and West and, most of all, taught by example the [[necessity]] of obtaining some personal [[realization]] of the truths of these great [[traditions]] and concretely expressing them in the outer world.

==References==

==References==

# G. Jung, CW 9,1 § 267.

# G. Jung, CW 9,1 § 267.

# All Plotinus quotations are from Plotinus: The Enneads, translated by Steven MacKenna (Burdett, NY: Larson Publications, 1992).

# All Plotinus quotations are from Plotinus: The Enneads, translated by Steven MacKenna (Burdett, NY: Larson Publications, 1992).

# James Hillman, "Psychology: Monotheistic or Polytheistic?," Spring, 1971, pp. 193-232.

# James Hillman, "Psychology: Monotheistic or Polytheistic?," Spring, 1971, pp. 193-232.

# Mark V. Fonda, "Examining the New Polytheism: A Critical Assessment of the Concepts of Self and Gender in Archetypal Psychology." Although successfully defended in April of 1995 and submitted for publication to university presses, the only publicly available copy of this work is on the internet at [http://www.strangelove.com/~marc/dispg.html].

# Mark V. Fonda, "Examining the New Polytheism: A Critical Assessment of the Concepts of Self and Gender in Archetypal Psychology." Although successfully defended in April of 1995 and submitted for publication to university presses, the only publicly available copy of this work is on the internet at [https://www.strangelove.com/~marc/dispg.html].

#  Katheleen Raine, Response to "Psychology: Monotheistic or Polytheistic?," Spring, 1971, p. 218.

#  Katheleen Raine, Response to "Psychology: Monotheistic or Polytheistic?," Spring, 1971, p. 218.

# G. Jung, CW 5, § 149.

# G. Jung, CW 5, § 149.

# Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy, trans. Allen Mandelbaum (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).

# Dante Alighieri, Divine Comedy, trans. Allen Mandelbaum (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982).

http://www.lightlink.com/vic/cosmo.html

https://www.lightlink.com/vic/cosmo.html