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| − | [[File:lighterstill.jpg]][[File:Mother-and-Child-c-1905.jpg |right|frame]] | + | #REDIRECT [[Motherhood]] |
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| − | A '''mother''' is a [[biological]] and/or social [[female]] [[parent]] of an offspring.[1] Because of the [[complexity]] and [[difference]]s of a mothers' social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a [[universal]]ly accepted definition.
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| − | ==Biological mother==
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| − | In the case of a mammal such as a [[human]], the biological mother gestates a fertilized ovum. As a viable fertilised ovum or "embryo" [[ideally]] develops into a [[fetus]]. Gestation occurs in the mother's uterus from conception until (under ideal circumstances, barring illness or defect) the fetus is sufficiently developed to be born. The mother [[experience]]s labor and gives birth. Once the child is born, the mother produces milk via the lactation [[process]]. The mother's breast milk is the source of anti-bodies for the infant's immune system and commonly the sole source of nutrition for the first year or more of the child's life.[2][3][4]
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| − | ==Surrogate mother==
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| − | A surrogate mother is, commonly, a woman who bears the embryo to term for a couple [[biologically]] unable to have [[children]]. Upon the child’s birth, the surrogate mother surrenders all her rights and responsibilities to the child[5] with sole [[intention]] of surrendering the infant to at least one of the biological parents. [6][7]
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| − | ==Title==
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| − | The term mother is often given to a [[woman]] other than the [[biological]] [[parent]], especially if she who fulfills the main social role in raising the child. This is commonly either an adoptive mother or a stepmother (the biologically unrelated wife of a child's father). In lesbian [[culture]]s, a non-biological mother, or so-called "othermother" exists.
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| − | Currently, with advances in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive_technologies reproductive technologies], the [[function]] of biological motherhood can be split between the genetic mother (who provides the ovum) and the gestational (commonly known as a surrogate) mother (who carries the pregnancy), and it is also possible neither will serve as the social mother (the one who rears the child). A [[health]]y connection between a mother and a child form a secure base, from which the child may later venture forth into the world.[8]
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| − | ==Social role==
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| − | Mothers have historically fulfilled the primary role in raising children, but since the late 20th century, the role of the [[father]] in child care has been given greater prominence and social acceptance in some Western countries.[9][10]
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| − | The social role and [[experience]] of motherhood varies greatly depending upon location. The organization [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Save_the_Children Save the Children] has (controversially) ranked the countries of the world, and found that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia Scandinavian] countries are the safest places to give birth, whereas countries in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa sub-Saharan Africa] are the least safest to give birth[11]. This study argues a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is over 750 times more likely to die in pregnancy or childbirth, compared to a mother in the top ten ranked countries, and a mother in the bottom ten ranked countries is 28 times more likely to see her child die before reaching their first birthday.
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| − | Mothers are more likely than fathers to encourage assimilative and [[communion]]-enhancing [[pattern]]s in their children.[12] Mothers are more likely than fathers to acknowledge their children's contributions in [[conversation]].[13][14][15][16] The way mothers speak to their children is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in [[context]] of the reference [[English]]) than fathers.[13]
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| − | Since the 1970s, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization in vitro fertilization] has made pregnancy possible at ages well beyond "natural" limits, generating ethical controversy and forcing significant [[change]]s in the social [[meaning]] of motherhood.[17][18] This is, however a position highly biased by Western world locality: outside the Western world, in-vitro fertilization has far less prominence, importance or currency compared to primary, basic healthcare, womens' basic [[health]], reducing infant mortality and the prevention of life-threatening diseases such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polio polio], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhus typhus] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria malaria].
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| − | ==References==
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| − | *"The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality", By Randy Thornhill, Steven W. Gangestad [23]
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| − | *"Motherhood - How should we care for our children?", By Anne Manne[24]
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| − | *"Mother nature: maternal instincts and how they shape the human species", By Sarah Blaffer Hrdy [25]
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | # http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mother
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| − | # http://www.dhushara.com/paradoxhtm/biology.htm
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| − | # [http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:w4h0d8-mGAsJ:people.uncw.edu/ballardt/bio240_241_lecture%2520notes/Study%2520Guide%252027%2520-%2520DEVELOPMENT.doc+%22mammal+human+gestation+ovum+embryo+fetus+uterus+birth+milk+lactation+breast%22&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT]
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| − | # [http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:aPLNj4I6ccIJ:www.cbu.edu/~esalgado/BIOL112/Campbell/ch46.doc+%22mammal+human+gestation+ovum+embryo+fetus+uterus+birth+milk+lactation+breast%22&cd=4&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us Chapter 46 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION]
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| − | # http://www.yourdictionary.com/law/surrogate-mother
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| − | # http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/surrogate_mother.
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| − | # [http://books.google.com/books?id=zV_9MajdN-8C&pg=PA151&lpg=PA151&dq=motherhood+biology+beyond+birth&source=bl&ots=-J_B0proX5&sig=Afy5D2Gj1nqxVSOIeT9qLgwPFSk&hl=en&ei=c4QxSsDsH6W-NNnF4cIH&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#PPR12,M1 Surrogate motherhood By Larry Ogalthorpe Gostin]
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| − | # Diane S. Feinberg, M.Ed. [http://www.dianefeinberg.com/article1.html The Importance of Mother and Child Attachment]
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| − | # [http://pascal.iseg.utl.pt/~cisep/conferencias/conferencia_20021016/Papers/kjeldstad55.PDF "In most Western countries the family model of a sole male breadwinner is in full retreat."]
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| − | # [http://www.ucgstp.org/lit/gn/gn064/fathersimportant.htm Why Are Fathers Important?] Interview with Dr. Ross Parke, professor of psychology at the University of California at Riverside, author of Fatherhood (1966) and co-author of Throwaway Dads (1999). Accessed 19 September 2007.
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| − | # Save the Children, [http://www.savethechildren.net/alliance/what_we_do/newsdesk/2006-05-08b.html State of the World's Mothers Report 2006].
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| − | # [http://fla.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/30/181 Gendered differences in parents' encouragement of sibling interaction: implications for the construction of a personal premise system]
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| − | # [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Fathers%27+speech+to+their+children:+perfect+pitch+or+tin+ear%3F-a0107202406 Fathers' speech to their children: perfect pitch or tin ear?]
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| − | # Hladik, E., & Edwards, H. (1984). A comparison of mother-father speech in the naturalistic home environment. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 13, 321-332.
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| − | [[Category: Sociology]]
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| − | [[Category: Psychology]]
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