Changes

==Origin==

==Origin==

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language Ancient Greek] ὀστρακισμός was so called because the banishment was effected by [[voting]] with potsherds or tiles (ὄστρακα , plural of ὄστρακον ''ostracon'' n.), on which the [[name]] of the [[person]] whom it was [[proposed]] to banish was written.

[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language Ancient Greek] ὀστρακισμός was so called because the banishment was effected by [[voting]] with potsherds or tiles (ὄστρακα , plural of ὄστρακον ''ostracon'' n.), on which the [[name]] of the [[person]] whom it was [[proposed]] to banish was written.

*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_century 1588]

*[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_century 1588]

==Definitions==

==Definitions==

*1: a [[method]] of temporary banishment by popular [[vote]] without [[trial]] or special [[accusation]] practiced in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece ancient Greece]

*1: a [[method]] of temporary banishment by popular [[vote]] without [[trial]] or special [[accusation]] practiced in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece ancient Greece]

*2: exclusion by general [[consent]] from common [[privileges]] or [[social]] [[acceptance]]  

*2: exclusion by general [[consent]] from common [[privileges]] or [[social]] [[acceptance]]  

==Description==

==Description==

'''Ostracism''' (Greek: έξω-οστρακισμός – ''exo'' (out)-''ostrakismos'') was a [[procedure]] under the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy Athenian democracy] in which any [[citizen]] could be expelled from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-state city-state] of Athens for ten years. While some instances clearly [[expressed]] popular [[anger]] at the [[victim]], ''ostracism'' was often used preemptively. It was used as a way of defusing major [[confrontations]] between rival politicians (by removing one of them from the scene), neutralizing someone [[thought]] to be a threat to the [[state]], or [[exiling]] a potential [[tyrant]]. Crucially, ostracism had no relation to the [[processes]] of [[justice]]. There was no charge or defense, and the exile was not in [[fact]] a penalty; it was simply a [[command]] from the Athenian people that one of their number be gone for ten years.

'''Ostracism''' (Greek: έξω-οστρακισμός – ''exo'' (out)-''ostrakismos'') was a [[procedure]] under the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenian_democracy Athenian democracy] in which any [[citizen]] could be expelled from the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City-state city-state] of Athens for ten years. While some instances clearly [[expressed]] popular [[anger]] at the [[victim]], ''ostracism'' was often used preemptively. It was used as a way of defusing major [[confrontations]] between rival politicians (by removing one of them from the scene), neutralizing someone [[thought]] to be a threat to the [[state]], or [[exiling]] a potential [[tyrant]]. Crucially, ostracism had no relation to the [[processes]] of [[justice]]. There was no charge or defense, and the exile was not in [[fact]] a penalty; it was simply a [[command]] from the Athenian people that one of their number be gone for ten years.

A [[modern]] use developed from the term is to [[describe]] informal exclusion from a group through social [[rejection]]. Although the [[psychology]] of ostracism takes this further, where it has been defined as “…any [[behaviour]] in which a group or individual excludes and [[ignores]] another group or individual”. This could therefore be an [[intentional]] [[act]] or an unintentional one.

A [[modern]] use developed from the term is to [[describe]] informal exclusion from a group through social [[rejection]]. Although the [[psychology]] of ostracism takes this further, where it has been defined as “…any [[behaviour]] in which a group or individual excludes and [[ignores]] another group or individual”. This could therefore be an [[intentional]] [[act]] or an unintentional one.

The name is derived from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracon ostraka], (singular ''ostrakon'' , ὄστρακον), referring to the pottery shards that were used as [[voting]] tokens. Broken pottery, [[abundant]] and virtually free, served as a kind of scrap [[paper]] (in contrast to papyrus, which was imported from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Egypt] as a high-quality [[writing]] surface, and was thus too costly to be disposable).

The name is derived from the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracon ostraka], (singular ''ostrakon'' , ὄστρακον), referring to the pottery shards that were used as [[voting]] tokens. Broken pottery, [[abundant]] and virtually free, served as a kind of scrap [[paper]] (in contrast to papyrus, which was imported from [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt Egypt] as a high-quality [[writing]] surface, and was thus too costly to be disposable).

Each year the Athenians were asked in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens) assembly] whether they wished to hold an ''ostracism''. The question was put in the sixth of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_calendar#State_calendar ten months] used for state business under the democracy (January or February in the modern Gregorian Calendar). If they voted "yes", then an ostracism would be held two months later. In a section of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agora agora] set off and suitably barriered, [[citizens]] scratched the name of a citizen they wished to expel on pottery sherds, and deposited them in urns. The presiding officials counted the ''ostraka'' submitted and sorted the [[names]] into separate piles. The person whose pile contained the most ''ostraka'' would be banished, provided that an additional criterion of a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorum quorum] was met, about which there are two principal sources:

Each year the Athenians were asked in the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens) assembly] whether they wished to hold an ''ostracism''. The question was put in the sixth of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attic_calendar#State_calendar ten months] used for state business under the democracy (January or February in the modern Gregorian Calendar). If they voted "yes", then an ostracism would be held two months later. In a section of the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agora agora] set off and suitably barriered, [[citizens]] scratched the name of a citizen they wished to expel on pottery sherds, and deposited them in urns. The presiding officials counted the ''ostraka'' submitted and sorted the [[names]] into separate piles. The person whose pile contained the most ''ostraka'' would be banished, provided that an additional criterion of a [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorum quorum] was met, about which there are two principal sources:

*According to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch Plutarch], the ostracism was considered valid if the total number of votes cast was at least 6,000.

*According to [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plutarch Plutarch], the ostracism was considered valid if the total number of votes cast was at least 6,000.

*According to a fragment of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philochorus Philochorus], the "winner" of the ostracism must have obtained at least 6,000 votes.

*According to a fragment of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philochorus Philochorus], the "winner" of the ostracism must have obtained at least 6,000 votes.

Plutarch's [[evidence]] for a quorum of 6,000, on [[a priori]] grounds a [[necessity]] for ''ostracism'' also per the account of Philochorus, accords with the number required for grants of citizenship in the following century and is generally preferred.

Plutarch's [[evidence]] for a quorum of 6,000, on [[a priori]] grounds a [[necessity]] for ''ostracism'' also per the account of Philochorus, accords with the number required for grants of citizenship in the following century and is generally preferred.

The person nominated had ten days to leave the [[city]]. If he attempted to return, the penalty was [[death]]. Notably, the [[property]] of the man banished was not confiscated and there was no loss of [[status]]. After the ten years, he was allowed to return without [[stigma]]. It was possible for the assembly to recall an ostracised person ahead of time; before the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Wars Persian invasion] of 479 BC, an amnesty was declared under which at least two ostracised leaders—[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles Pericles]' father Xanthippus and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristides Aristides] 'the Just'—are known to have returned. Similarly, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimon Cimon], ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency.

The person nominated had ten days to leave the [[city]]. If he attempted to return, the penalty was [[death]]. Notably, the [[property]] of the man banished was not confiscated and there was no loss of [[status]]. After the ten years, he was allowed to return without [[stigma]]. It was possible for the assembly to recall an ostracised person ahead of time; before the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Wars Persian invasion] of 479 BC, an amnesty was declared under which at least two ostracised leaders—[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericles Pericles]' father Xanthippus and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristides Aristides] 'the Just'—are known to have returned. Similarly, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimon Cimon], ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency.

==The Psychology of Ostracism==

==The Psychology of Ostracism==

Most of the [[research]] on the [[psychology]] of ostracism has been conducted by the social psychologist Kip Williams. He and his colleagues have devised a model of ostracism which provides a framework to show the [[complexity]] in the varieties of ostracism and the [[processes]] of its effects. There he theorises that ostracism can [[potentially]] be so harmful that we have evolved an efficient [[warning]] system to immediately detect and respond to it.

Most of the [[research]] on the [[psychology]] of ostracism has been conducted by the social psychologist Kip Williams. He and his colleagues have devised a model of ostracism which provides a framework to show the [[complexity]] in the varieties of ostracism and the [[processes]] of its effects. There he theorises that ostracism can [[potentially]] be so harmful that we have evolved an efficient [[warning]] system to immediately detect and respond to it.

In the animal kingdom as well as in [[primitive]] [[human]] societies, ostracism can lead to [[death]] due to the lack of [[protection]] benefits and [[access]] to sufficient [[food]] resources from the group. Living apart from the whole of [[society]] also means not having a [[mate]], so being able to detect ostracism would be a highly adaptive [[response]] to ensure [[survival]] and continuation of the genetic line.

In the animal kingdom as well as in [[primitive]] [[human]] societies, ostracism can lead to [[death]] due to the lack of [[protection]] benefits and [[access]] to sufficient [[food]] resources from the group. Living apart from the whole of [[society]] also means not having a [[mate]], so being able to detect ostracism would be a highly adaptive [[response]] to ensure [[survival]] and continuation of the genetic line.

It is proposed that ostracism uniquely poses a threat to four fundamental human needs; the need to belong, the need for [[control]] in social situations, the need to maintain high levels of [[self-esteem]], and the need to have a sense of a [[meaningful]] [[existence]]. A threat to these needs produces [[psychological]] distress and [[pain]]. Thus, people are [[motivated]] to remove this [[pain]] with behaviours aimed at reducing the likelihood of others ostracising them any further and increasing their inclusionary [[status]].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracism]

It is proposed that ostracism uniquely poses a threat to four fundamental human needs; the need to belong, the need for [[control]] in social situations, the need to maintain high levels of [[self-esteem]], and the need to have a sense of a [[meaningful]] [[existence]]. A threat to these needs produces [[psychological]] distress and [[pain]]. Thus, people are [[motivated]] to remove this [[pain]] with behaviours aimed at reducing the likelihood of others ostracising them any further and increasing their inclusionary [[status]].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostracism]

[[Category: Psychology]]

[[Category: Psychology]]

[[Category: Political Science]]

[[Category: Political Science]]