Changes

Following the death of Freud, a new group of psychoanalysts began to explore the function of the [[ego]].  Led by Hartmann, Kris, Rappaport and Lowenstein, new discoveries were made in understanding the synthetic function of the ego as a mediator in psychic functioning. Hartmann, in particular distinguished between autonomous ego functions (such as [[memory]] and [[intellect]] which could be secondarily affected by conflict) and synthetic functions which were a result of compromise formation.  These "Ego Psychologists" of the 50's paved a way to focus analytic work by attending to the defenses (mediated by the ego) before exploring the deeper roots to the unconscious conflicts.  In addition there was burgeoning interest in child psychoanalysis.  Although criticized since its inception, psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development, and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances. In the 1960s, Freud's early thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development, many of which modified the timing and normality of several of Freud's theories (which had been gleaned from the treatment of women with mental disturbances). Several researchers, followed [[Karen Horney|Karen Horney's]] studies of societal pressures that influence the development of women. Most contemporary North American psychoanalysts employ theories that, while based on those of Sigmund Freud, include many modifications of [[theory]] and [[practice]] developed since his death in 1939.

Following the death of Freud, a new group of psychoanalysts began to explore the function of the [[ego]].  Led by Hartmann, Kris, Rappaport and Lowenstein, new discoveries were made in understanding the synthetic function of the ego as a mediator in psychic functioning. Hartmann, in particular distinguished between autonomous ego functions (such as [[memory]] and [[intellect]] which could be secondarily affected by conflict) and synthetic functions which were a result of compromise formation.  These "Ego Psychologists" of the 50's paved a way to focus analytic work by attending to the defenses (mediated by the ego) before exploring the deeper roots to the unconscious conflicts.  In addition there was burgeoning interest in child psychoanalysis.  Although criticized since its inception, psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development, and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances. In the 1960s, Freud's early thoughts on the childhood development of female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development, many of which modified the timing and normality of several of Freud's theories (which had been gleaned from the treatment of women with mental disturbances). Several researchers, followed [[Karen Horney|Karen Horney's]] studies of societal pressures that influence the development of women. Most contemporary North American psychoanalysts employ theories that, while based on those of Sigmund Freud, include many modifications of [[theory]] and [[practice]] developed since his death in 1939.

In the 2000s there are approximately 35 training institutes for psychoanalysis in the United States accredited by the [http://www.apsa.org American Psychoanalytic Association] which is a component organization of the [[International Psychoanalytical Association]], and there are over 3,000 graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the United States. The International Psychoanalytical Association accredits psychoanalytic training centers throughout the rest of the world, including countries such as Serbia, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, and many others, as well as about six institutes directly in the U.S. Freud published a paper entitled The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement in 1914, German original being first published in the Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse.

In the 2000s there are approximately 35 training institutes for psychoanalysis in the United States accredited by the [https://www.apsa.org American Psychoanalytic Association] which is a component organization of the [[International Psychoanalytical Association]], and there are over 3,000 graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the United States. The International Psychoanalytical Association accredits psychoanalytic training centers throughout the rest of the world, including countries such as Serbia, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, and many others, as well as about six institutes directly in the U.S. Freud published a paper entitled The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement in 1914, German original being first published in the Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse.

==Theories==

==Theories==

The predominant psychoanalytic theories can be grouped into several theoretical "schools". Although these theoretical "schools" differ, most of them continue to stress the strong influence of unconscious elements affecting people's mental lives. There has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conflicting theory (cf. the work of Theodore Dorpat, B. Killingmo, and S. Akhtar). As in all fields of healthcare, there are some persistent conflicts regarding specific causes of some syndromes, and disputes regarding the best treatment techniques. In the 2000s, psychoanalytic [[ideas]] are embedded in Western [[culture]], especially in fields such as childcare, [[education]], [[literary criticism]], cultural studies, and mental health, particularly psychotherapy. Though there is a mainstream of evolved analytic [[idea]]s, there are groups who follow the precepts of one or more of the later theoreticians. Psychoanalytic ideas also play roles in some types of literary analysis such as Archetypal literary criticism.   

The predominant psychoanalytic theories can be grouped into several theoretical "schools". Although these theoretical "schools" differ, most of them continue to stress the strong influence of unconscious elements affecting people's mental lives. There has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conflicting theory (cf. the work of Theodore Dorpat, B. Killingmo, and S. Akhtar). As in all fields of healthcare, there are some persistent conflicts regarding specific causes of some syndromes, and disputes regarding the best treatment techniques. In the 2000s, psychoanalytic [[ideas]] are embedded in Western [[culture]], especially in fields such as childcare, [[education]], [[literary criticism]], cultural studies, and mental health, particularly psychotherapy. Though there is a mainstream of evolved analytic [[idea]]s, there are groups who follow the precepts of one or more of the later theoreticians. Psychoanalytic ideas also play roles in some types of literary analysis such as Archetypal literary criticism.   

The more there are deficits of serious magnitude in any of the above mental operations (1-8), the more psychoanalysis as treatment is contraindicated, and the more medication and supportive approaches are indicated. In non-psychotic first-degree criminals, any treatment is often contraindicated. The problems treatable with [[analysis]] include: phobias, conversions, compulsions, obsessions, anxiety attacks, depressions, sexual dysfunctions, a wide variety of relationship problems (such as dating and marital strife), and a wide variety of [[character]] problems (for example, painful shyness, meanness, obnoxiousness, workaholism, hyperseductiveness, hyperemotionality, hyperfastidiousness). The fact that many of such patients also demonstrate deficits above makes diagnosis and treatment selection difficult.

The more there are deficits of serious magnitude in any of the above mental operations (1-8), the more psychoanalysis as treatment is contraindicated, and the more medication and supportive approaches are indicated. In non-psychotic first-degree criminals, any treatment is often contraindicated. The problems treatable with [[analysis]] include: phobias, conversions, compulsions, obsessions, anxiety attacks, depressions, sexual dysfunctions, a wide variety of relationship problems (such as dating and marital strife), and a wide variety of [[character]] problems (for example, painful shyness, meanness, obnoxiousness, workaholism, hyperseductiveness, hyperemotionality, hyperfastidiousness). The fact that many of such patients also demonstrate deficits above makes diagnosis and treatment selection difficult.

Analytical organizations such as the [http://www.ipa.org.uk International Psychoanalytic Association], [http://www.apsa.org The American Psychoanalytic Association],[http://www.apsa.org American Psychoanalytic Association] and the [http://www.efpp.org European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy], have established procedures and models for the indication and [[practice]] of psychoanalytical therapy for trainees in analysis. The match between the analyst and the patient can be viewed as another contributing factor for the indication and contraindication for psychoanalytic treatment. The analyst decides whether the patient is suitable for psychoanalysis. This decision made by the analyst, besides made on the usual indications and pathology, is also based to a certain degree by the "fit" between analyst and patient.

Analytical organizations such as the [https://www.ipa.org.uk International Psychoanalytic Association], [https://www.apsa.org The American Psychoanalytic Association],[https://www.apsa.org American Psychoanalytic Association] and the [https://www.efpp.org European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy], have established procedures and models for the indication and [[practice]] of psychoanalytical therapy for trainees in analysis. The match between the analyst and the patient can be viewed as another contributing factor for the indication and contraindication for psychoanalytic treatment. The analyst decides whether the patient is suitable for psychoanalysis. This decision made by the analyst, besides made on the usual indications and pathology, is also based to a certain degree by the "fit" between analyst and patient.

When analysts utilize concrete, semi-standardized procedures to evaluate patients' suitability for analytic treatment, their associations' "defined protocols," may include structured interview, [[personality]] tests, projective tests, and/or psychological questionnaires. An evaluation may include one or more other analysts' independent opinions and will include discussion of the patient's financial situation and insurances.

When analysts utilize concrete, semi-standardized procedures to evaluate patients' suitability for analytic treatment, their associations' "defined protocols," may include structured interview, [[personality]] tests, projective tests, and/or psychological questionnaires. An evaluation may include one or more other analysts' independent opinions and will include discussion of the patient's financial situation and insurances.

Psychoanalytic training in the United States, in most locations, involves personal analytic treatment for the trainee, conducted confidentially, with no report to the Education Committee of the Analytic Training Institute; approximately 600 hours of class instruction, with a standard curriculum, over a four-year period. Classes are often a few hours per week, or for a full day or two every other weekend during the academic year; this varies with the institute; and supervision once per week, with a senior analyst, on each analytic treatment case the trainee has. The minimum number of cases varies between institutes, often two to four cases. Male and female cases are required. Supervision must go on for at least a few years on one or more cases. Supervision is done in the supervisor's office, where the trainee presents material from the analytic work that week, examines the unconscious conflicts with the supervisor, and learns, discusses, and is advised about technique.

Psychoanalytic training in the United States, in most locations, involves personal analytic treatment for the trainee, conducted confidentially, with no report to the Education Committee of the Analytic Training Institute; approximately 600 hours of class instruction, with a standard curriculum, over a four-year period. Classes are often a few hours per week, or for a full day or two every other weekend during the academic year; this varies with the institute; and supervision once per week, with a senior analyst, on each analytic treatment case the trainee has. The minimum number of cases varies between institutes, often two to four cases. Male and female cases are required. Supervision must go on for at least a few years on one or more cases. Supervision is done in the supervisor's office, where the trainee presents material from the analytic work that week, examines the unconscious conflicts with the supervisor, and learns, discusses, and is advised about technique.

Psychoanalytic Training Centers in the United States have been accredited by special committees of the [http://www.apsa.org/ American Psychoanalytic Association] or the International Psychoanalytical Association. Because of theoretical differences, other independent institutes arose, usually founded by psychologists, who until 1987 were not permitted access to psychoanalytic training institutes of the American Psychoanalytic Association.  Currently there are between seventy-five and one hundred independent institutes in the United States.  As well, other institutes are affiliated to other organizations such as the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, and the National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. At most psychoanalytic institutes in the United States, qualifications for entry include a terminal degree in a mental health field, such as Ph.D., C.S.W., or M.D.  A few institutes restrict applicants to those already holding an M.D. or Ph.D., and one institute in Southern California confers a Ph.D. or Psy.D. in psychoanalysis upon graduation, which involves completion of the necessary requirements for the state boards that confer that doctoral degree.

Psychoanalytic Training Centers in the United States have been accredited by special committees of the [https://www.apsa.org/ American Psychoanalytic Association] or the International Psychoanalytical Association. Because of theoretical differences, other independent institutes arose, usually founded by psychologists, who until 1987 were not permitted access to psychoanalytic training institutes of the American Psychoanalytic Association.  Currently there are between seventy-five and one hundred independent institutes in the United States.  As well, other institutes are affiliated to other organizations such as the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, and the National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. At most psychoanalytic institutes in the United States, qualifications for entry include a terminal degree in a mental health field, such as Ph.D., C.S.W., or M.D.  A few institutes restrict applicants to those already holding an M.D. or Ph.D., and one institute in Southern California confers a Ph.D. or Psy.D. in psychoanalysis upon graduation, which involves completion of the necessary requirements for the state boards that confer that doctoral degree.

Some psychoanalytic training has been set up as a post-doctoral fellowship in university settings, such as at Duke University, Yale University, New York University, Adelphi University, and Columbia University. Other psychoanalytic institutes may not be directly associated with universities, but the faculty at those institutes usually hold contemporaneous faculty positions with psychology Ph.D. programs and/or with Medical School psychiatry residency programs.   

Some psychoanalytic training has been set up as a post-doctoral fellowship in university settings, such as at Duke University, Yale University, New York University, Adelphi University, and Columbia University. Other psychoanalytic institutes may not be directly associated with universities, but the faculty at those institutes usually hold contemporaneous faculty positions with psychology Ph.D. programs and/or with Medical School psychiatry residency programs.   

=== Psychoanalysis in Britain===

=== Psychoanalysis in Britain===

The [http://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/ London Psychoanalytical Society] was founded by Ernest Jones on 30th October 1913. With the expansion of psychoanalysis in the United Kingdom the Society was renamed the [British Psychoanalytical Society] in 1919. Soon after, the Institute of Psychoanalysis was established to administer the Society’s activities. These include: the training of psychoanalysts, the development of the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, the provision of treatment through The London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, the publication of books in the [http://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/newlibr2.php The New Library of Psychoanalysis] and [http://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/books.htm Psychoanalytic Ideas]. The Institute of Psychoanalysis also publishes [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0020-7578&site=1 The International Journal of Psychoanalysis], maintains a library, furthers [[research]], and holds [[public]] lectures. The Society has a Code of Ethics and an Ethical Committee. The Society, the Institute and the Clinic are all located at Byron House.

The [https://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/ London Psychoanalytical Society] was founded by Ernest Jones on 30th October 1913. With the expansion of psychoanalysis in the United Kingdom the Society was renamed the [British Psychoanalytical Society] in 1919. Soon after, the Institute of Psychoanalysis was established to administer the Society’s activities. These include: the training of psychoanalysts, the development of the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, the provision of treatment through The London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, the publication of books in the [https://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/newlibr2.php The New Library of Psychoanalysis] and [https://www.psychoanalysis.org.uk/books.htm Psychoanalytic Ideas]. The Institute of Psychoanalysis also publishes [https://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0020-7578&site=1 The International Journal of Psychoanalysis], maintains a library, furthers [[research]], and holds [[public]] lectures. The Society has a Code of Ethics and an Ethical Committee. The Society, the Institute and the Clinic are all located at Byron House.

The Society is a component of the International Psychoanalytical Association, a body with members on all five continents that safeguards professional and ethical practice. The Society is a member of the [http://www.psychoanalytic-council.org/main/ British Psychoanalytic Council] (BPC); the BPC publishes a register of British psychoanalysts and psychoanalytical psychotherapists. All members of the British Psychoanalytical Society are required to undertake continuing professional development.  

The Society is a component of the International Psychoanalytical Association, a body with members on all five continents that safeguards professional and ethical practice. The Society is a member of the [https://www.psychoanalytic-council.org/main/ British Psychoanalytic Council] (BPC); the BPC publishes a register of British psychoanalysts and psychoanalytical psychotherapists. All members of the British Psychoanalytical Society are required to undertake continuing professional development.  

Through its work – and the work of its individual members – the British Psychoanalytical Society has made an unrivalled contribution the understanding and treatment of mental illness. Members of the Society have included Michael Balint, Wilfred Bion, John Bowlby, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, Joseph Sandler, and Donald Winnicott.  

Through its work – and the work of its individual members – the British Psychoanalytical Society has made an unrivalled contribution the understanding and treatment of mental illness. Members of the Society have included Michael Balint, Wilfred Bion, John Bowlby, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein, Joseph Sandler, and Donald Winnicott.  

Over a hundred years of case reports and studies in the journal ''Modern Psychoanalysis'', the ''Psychoanalytic Quarterly'', the ''International Journal of Psychoanalysis'' and the ''Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association'' have analyzed efficacy of analysis in cases of [[neurosis]] and character or [[personality]] problems. Psychoanalysis modified by object relations techniques has been shown to be effective in many cases of ingrained problems of [[intimacy]] and relationship (cf. the many books of Otto Kernberg). As a therapeutic treatment, psychoanalytic techniques may be useful in a one-session consultation. Psychoanalytic treatment, in other situations, may run from about a year to many years, depending on the severity and complexity of the pathology.

Over a hundred years of case reports and studies in the journal ''Modern Psychoanalysis'', the ''Psychoanalytic Quarterly'', the ''International Journal of Psychoanalysis'' and the ''Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association'' have analyzed efficacy of analysis in cases of [[neurosis]] and character or [[personality]] problems. Psychoanalysis modified by object relations techniques has been shown to be effective in many cases of ingrained problems of [[intimacy]] and relationship (cf. the many books of Otto Kernberg). As a therapeutic treatment, psychoanalytic techniques may be useful in a one-session consultation. Psychoanalytic treatment, in other situations, may run from about a year to many years, depending on the severity and complexity of the pathology.

Psychoanalytic theory has, from its inception, been the subject of criticism and controversy. Freud remarked on this early in his career, when other physicians in Vienna ostracized him for his findings that hysterical conversion symptoms were not limited to women. Challenges to analytic theory began with [[Otto Rank]] and [[Alfred Adler]] (turn of the 20th century), continued with behaviorists (e.g. Joseph Wolpe) into the 1940s and '50s, and have persisted. Criticisms come from those who object the notion that there are mechanisms, thoughts or feelings in the mind that could be unconscious. Criticisms also have been leveled against the discovery of "infantile sexuality" (the recognition that children between ages two and six imagine things about procreation).  Criticisms of theory have led to variations in analytic theories, such as the work of Ronald Fairbairn, Michael Balint, and Bowlby.  In the past 30 years or so, the criticisms have centered on the issue of empirical verification,[http://www.human-nature.com/freud/tallis.html] in spite of many empirical, prospective research studies that have been empirically validated (e.g., See the studies of Barbara Milrod, at Cornell University Medical School, et al.).

Psychoanalytic theory has, from its inception, been the subject of criticism and controversy. Freud remarked on this early in his career, when other physicians in Vienna ostracized him for his findings that hysterical conversion symptoms were not limited to women. Challenges to analytic theory began with [[Otto Rank]] and [[Alfred Adler]] (turn of the 20th century), continued with behaviorists (e.g. Joseph Wolpe) into the 1940s and '50s, and have persisted. Criticisms come from those who object the notion that there are mechanisms, thoughts or feelings in the mind that could be unconscious. Criticisms also have been leveled against the discovery of "infantile sexuality" (the recognition that children between ages two and six imagine things about procreation).  Criticisms of theory have led to variations in analytic theories, such as the work of Ronald Fairbairn, Michael Balint, and Bowlby.  In the past 30 years or so, the criticisms have centered on the issue of empirical verification,[https://www.human-nature.com/freud/tallis.html] in spite of many empirical, prospective research studies that have been empirically validated (e.g., See the studies of Barbara Milrod, at Cornell University Medical School, et al.).

Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development (cf. the journal ''The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child''), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances. In the 1960s, Freud's early (1905) thoughts on the childhood development of human female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to major research in the 1970s and 80s, and then to a reformulation of female sexual development that corrected some of Freud's concepts. Also see the various works of Eleanor Galenson, Nancy Chodorow, [[Karen Horney]], Francoise Dolto, Melanie Klein, and others.

Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood development (cf. the journal ''The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child''), and has developed into a flexible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances. In the 1960s, Freud's early (1905) thoughts on the childhood development of human female sexuality were challenged; this challenge led to major research in the 1970s and 80s, and then to a reformulation of female sexual development that corrected some of Freud's concepts. Also see the various works of Eleanor Galenson, Nancy Chodorow, [[Karen Horney]], Francoise Dolto, Melanie Klein, and others.

A 2005 review of randomized controlled trials found that "psychoanalytic therapy is (1) more effective than no treatment or treatment as usual, and (2) more effective than shorter forms of psychodynamic therapy".[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16096078&query_hl=2] Empirical [[research]] on the efficacy of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy has also become prominent among psychoanalytic researchers.

A 2005 review of randomized controlled trials found that "psychoanalytic therapy is (1) more effective than no treatment or treatment as usual, and (2) more effective than shorter forms of psychodynamic therapy".[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16096078&query_hl=2] Empirical [[research]] on the efficacy of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy has also become prominent among psychoanalytic researchers.

Research on psychodynamic treatment of some populations shows mixed results. Research by analysts such as Bertram Karon and colleagues at Michigan State University had suggested that when trained properly, psychodynamic therapists can be effective with schizophrenic patients. More recent research casts doubt on these claims. The [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/schzpatt1.htm Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team] (PORT) report argues in its [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/schzrec1.htm Recommendation 22] against the use of psychodynamic therapy in cases of schizophrenia, noting that more trials are necessary to verify its effectiveness. However, the PORT recommendation is based on the opinions of clinicians rather than on empirical data, and empirical data exist that contradict this recommendation ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12722885&query_hl=6])

Research on psychodynamic treatment of some populations shows mixed results. Research by analysts such as Bertram Karon and colleagues at Michigan State University had suggested that when trained properly, psychodynamic therapists can be effective with schizophrenic patients. More recent research casts doubt on these claims. The [https://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/schzpatt1.htm Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team] (PORT) report argues in its [https://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/schzrec1.htm Recommendation 22] against the use of psychodynamic therapy in cases of schizophrenia, noting that more trials are necessary to verify its effectiveness. However, the PORT recommendation is based on the opinions of clinicians rather than on empirical data, and empirical data exist that contradict this recommendation ([https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12722885&query_hl=6])

A review of current medical literature in The Cochrane Library, ([http://www.update-software.com/Abstracts/ab001360.htm]) the updated abstract of which is available online) reached the conclusion that no data exist that demonstrate that psychodynamic psychotherapy is effective in treating schizophrenia. Dr. Hyman Spotnitz and the practitioners of his theory known as Modern Psychoanalysis, a specific sub-specialty, still report (2007) much success in using their enhanced version of psychoanalytic technique in the treatment of schizophrenia. Further data also suggest that psychoanalysis is not effective (and possibly even detrimental) in the [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15266545&query_hl=6]. Experiences of psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psychotherapists and research into infant and child development have led to new insights. Theories have been further developed and the results of empirical research are now more integrated in the psychoanalytic theory. [http://www.psychoanalytischinstituut.nl/]

A review of current medical literature in The Cochrane Library, ([https://www.update-software.com/Abstracts/ab001360.htm]) the updated abstract of which is available online) reached the conclusion that no data exist that demonstrate that psychodynamic psychotherapy is effective in treating schizophrenia. Dr. Hyman Spotnitz and the practitioners of his theory known as Modern Psychoanalysis, a specific sub-specialty, still report (2007) much success in using their enhanced version of psychoanalytic technique in the treatment of schizophrenia. Further data also suggest that psychoanalysis is not effective (and possibly even detrimental) in the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15266545&query_hl=6]. Experiences of psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psychotherapists and research into infant and child development have led to new insights. Theories have been further developed and the results of empirical research are now more integrated in the psychoanalytic theory. [https://www.psychoanalytischinstituut.nl/]

There are different forms of [[psychoanalysis]] and [[psychotherapies]] in which psychoanalytic thinking is practiced. Besides classical psychoanalysis there is for example psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Other examples of well known therapies which also use insights of psychoanalysis are Mentalization-Based Treatment (MBT), and Transference-Focused Psychotherapy (TFP)  There is also a continuing influence of psychoanalytic [[thinking]] in different settings in the mental health care.[http://www.npg-utrecht.nl/npg.htm] To give an example: in the psychotherapeutic training in the Netherlands, psychoanalytic and system therapeutic theories, drafts, and techniques are combined and integrated. Other psychoanalytic schools include the Melanie Klein, [[Lacanian]], and Winnicottian schools.

There are different forms of [[psychoanalysis]] and [[psychotherapies]] in which psychoanalytic thinking is practiced. Besides classical psychoanalysis there is for example psychoanalytic psychotherapy. Other examples of well known therapies which also use insights of psychoanalysis are Mentalization-Based Treatment (MBT), and Transference-Focused Psychotherapy (TFP)  There is also a continuing influence of psychoanalytic [[thinking]] in different settings in the mental health care.[https://www.npg-utrecht.nl/npg.htm] To give an example: in the psychotherapeutic training in the Netherlands, psychoanalytic and system therapeutic theories, drafts, and techniques are combined and integrated. Other psychoanalytic schools include the Melanie Klein, [[Lacanian]], and Winnicottian schools.

==Criticism==

==Criticism==

Exchanges between critics and defenders of psychoanalysis have often been so heated that they have come to be characterized as the [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/dispatchesfromthefreudwars.htm ''Freud Wars'']. Popper argued that psychoanalysis is a [[pseudoscience]] because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted, that is, they are not falsifiable. For example, if a client's reaction was not consistent with the psychosexual theory then an alternate explanation would be given (e.g. defense mechanisms,reaction formation). Karl Kraus, an Austrian satirist, was the subject of a book written by noted [[libertarian]] author Thomas Szasz. The book <i>Anti-Freud: Karl Kraus's Criticism of Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry</i>, originally published under the name <i>Karl Kraus and the Soul Doctors</i>, portrayed Kraus as a harsh critic of Sigmund Freud and of psychoanalysis in general. Other commentators, such as Edward Timms, author of <i>Karl Kraus - Apocalyptic Satirist</i>, have argued that Kraus respected Freud, though with reservations about the application of some of his theories, and that his views were far less black-and-white than Szasz suggests.

Exchanges between critics and defenders of psychoanalysis have often been so heated that they have come to be characterized as the [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/dispatchesfromthefreudwars.htm ''Freud Wars'']. Popper argued that psychoanalysis is a [[pseudoscience]] because its claims are not testable and cannot be refuted, that is, they are not falsifiable. For example, if a client's reaction was not consistent with the psychosexual theory then an alternate explanation would be given (e.g. defense mechanisms,reaction formation). Karl Kraus, an Austrian satirist, was the subject of a book written by noted [[libertarian]] author Thomas Szasz. The book <i>Anti-Freud: Karl Kraus's Criticism of Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry</i>, originally published under the name <i>Karl Kraus and the Soul Doctors</i>, portrayed Kraus as a harsh critic of Sigmund Freud and of psychoanalysis in general. Other commentators, such as Edward Timms, author of <i>Karl Kraus - Apocalyptic Satirist</i>, have argued that Kraus respected Freud, though with reservations about the application of some of his theories, and that his views were far less black-and-white than Szasz suggests.

Grünbaum argues that psychoanalytic based theories are falsifiable, but that the causal claims of psychoanalysis are unsupported by the available clinical evidence. Other schools of psychology have produced alternative methods for psychotherapy, including behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, [[Gestalt therapy]] and [[person-centered psychotherapy]]. [[Hans Eysenck]] determined that improvement was no greater than spontaneous remission. Between two-thirds and three-fourths of “neurotics” would recover naturally; this was no different from therapy clients. Prioleau, Murdock, Brody reviewed several therapy-outcome studies and determined that psychotherapy is not different from placebo controls.

Grünbaum argues that psychoanalytic based theories are falsifiable, but that the causal claims of psychoanalysis are unsupported by the available clinical evidence. Other schools of psychology have produced alternative methods for psychotherapy, including behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, [[Gestalt therapy]] and [[person-centered psychotherapy]]. [[Hans Eysenck]] determined that improvement was no greater than spontaneous remission. Between two-thirds and three-fourths of “neurotics” would recover naturally; this was no different from therapy clients. Prioleau, Murdock, Brody reviewed several therapy-outcome studies and determined that psychotherapy is not different from placebo controls.

[[Michel Foucault]] and [[Gilles Deleuze]] claimed that the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of [[power]] and that its confessional techniques resemble the Christian [[tradition]]. Strong criticism of certain forms of psychoanalysis is offered by psychoanalytical theorists. [[Jacques Lacan]] criticized the emphasis of some American and British psychoanalytical traditions on what he has viewed as the suggestion of imaginary "causes" for symptoms, and recommended the return to Freud Together with Gilles Deleuze, [[Felix Guattari]] criticised the Oedipal structure. (ISBN 0-485-30018-4) Luce Irigaray criticised psychoanalysis, employing Jacques Derrida's concept of phallogocentrism to describe the exclusion of the woman from Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalytical theories.

[[Michel Foucault]] and [[Gilles Deleuze]] claimed that the institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of [[power]] and that its confessional techniques resemble the Christian [[tradition]]. Strong criticism of certain forms of psychoanalysis is offered by psychoanalytical theorists. [[Jacques Lacan]] criticized the emphasis of some American and British psychoanalytical traditions on what he has viewed as the suggestion of imaginary "causes" for symptoms, and recommended the return to Freud Together with Gilles Deleuze, [[Felix Guattari]] criticised the Oedipal structure. (ISBN 0-485-30018-4) Luce Irigaray criticised psychoanalysis, employing Jacques Derrida's concept of phallogocentrism to describe the exclusion of the woman from Freudian and Lacanian psychoanalytical theories.

Due to the wide variety of psychoanalytic theories, varying schools of psychoanalysis often internally criticize each other. One consequence is that some critics offer criticism of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis while not rejecting other premises of psychoanalysis. Defenders of psychoanalysis argue that many critics (such as feminist critics of Freud) have attempted to offer criticisms of psychoanalysis that were in fact only criticisms of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis. As the psychoanalytic researcher Drew Westen puts it, "Critics have typically focused on a version of psychoanalytic theory—circa 1920 at best—that few contemporary analysts find compelling... In so doing, however, they have set the terms of the public debate and have led many analysts, I believe mistakenly, down an indefensible path of trying to defend a 75 to 100-year-old version of a theory and therapy that has changed substantially since Freud laid its foundations at the turn of the century." [http://www.psychomedia.it/rapaport-klein/westen99.htm link to Westen article]. A further consideration with respect to cost is that in circumstances when lower cost treatment is provided to the patient as the analyst is funded by the government, then psychoanalytic treatment occurs at the expense other forms of more effective treatment.

Due to the wide variety of psychoanalytic theories, varying schools of psychoanalysis often internally criticize each other. One consequence is that some critics offer criticism of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis while not rejecting other premises of psychoanalysis. Defenders of psychoanalysis argue that many critics (such as feminist critics of Freud) have attempted to offer criticisms of psychoanalysis that were in fact only criticisms of specific ideas present only in one or more theories, rather than in all of psychoanalysis. As the psychoanalytic researcher Drew Westen puts it, "Critics have typically focused on a version of psychoanalytic theory—circa 1920 at best—that few contemporary analysts find compelling... In so doing, however, they have set the terms of the public debate and have led many analysts, I believe mistakenly, down an indefensible path of trying to defend a 75 to 100-year-old version of a theory and therapy that has changed substantially since Freud laid its foundations at the turn of the century." [https://www.psychomedia.it/rapaport-klein/westen99.htm link to Westen article]. A further consideration with respect to cost is that in circumstances when lower cost treatment is provided to the patient as the analyst is funded by the government, then psychoanalytic treatment occurs at the expense other forms of more effective treatment.

Freud's psychoanalysis was criticized by his wife, Martha. René Laforgue reported Martha Freud saying, "I must admit that if I did not realize how seriously my husband takes his treatments, I should think that psychoanalysis is a form of pornography." To Martha there was something vulgar about psychoanalysis, and she dissociated herself from it. According to Marie Bonaparte, Martha was upset with her husband's work and his treatment of [[sexuality]].

Freud's psychoanalysis was criticized by his wife, Martha. René Laforgue reported Martha Freud saying, "I must admit that if I did not realize how seriously my husband takes his treatments, I should think that psychoanalysis is a form of pornography." To Martha there was something vulgar about psychoanalysis, and she dissociated herself from it. According to Marie Bonaparte, Martha was upset with her husband's work and his treatment of [[sexuality]].

# Wallerstein (2000), Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy  

# Wallerstein (2000), Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy  

# Blum H. Masochism, the Ego Ideal and the Psychology of Women, JAPA 1976

# Blum H. Masochism, the Ego Ideal and the Psychology of Women, JAPA 1976

# American Psychoanalytic Association, http://apsa.org/  

# American Psychoanalytic Association, https://apsa.org/  

# Freud S (1914), "The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement", Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse 4, http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/History/  

# Freud S (1914), "The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement", Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse 4, https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Freud/History/  

# Freud S (1900), The Interpretation of Dreams, IV and V (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955  

# Freud S (1900), The Interpretation of Dreams, IV and V (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955  

# Freud S (1915), The Unconscious, XIV (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955  

# Freud S (1915), The Unconscious, XIV (2nd ed.), Hogarth Press, 1955  

# Brenner (2006), "Psychoanalysis: Mind and Meaning", Psychoanalytic Quarterly Press (New York)  

# Brenner (2006), "Psychoanalysis: Mind and Meaning", Psychoanalytic Quarterly Press (New York)  

# Mitchell S (1997), "Influence and Autonomy in Psychoanalysis", The Analytic Press  

# Mitchell S (1997), "Influence and Autonomy in Psychoanalysis", The Analytic Press  

# International Psychoanalytic Organization, http://www.ipa.org.uk/  

# International Psychoanalytic Organization, https://www.ipa.org.uk/  

# American Psychoanalytic Association, http://www.apsa.org  

# American Psychoanalytic Association, https://www.apsa.org  

# European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, http://www.efpp.org  

# European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy, https://www.efpp.org  

# Gray P, The Ego and Analysis of Defense, J. AronsonYear= 1994  

# Gray P, The Ego and Analysis of Defense, J. AronsonYear= 1994  

# Morris N, Eagle (2007), "Psychoanalytic Psychology", Psychoanalysis and its Critics 24: 10–24  

# Morris N, Eagle (2007), "Psychoanalytic Psychology", Psychoanalysis and its Critics 24: 10–24  

# American Psychoanalytic Association: Home Page

# American Psychoanalytic Association: Home Page

# Tuhus-Dubrow R (April 12), "Head case", The Village Voice, http://www.villagevoice.com/arts/0515,edsupptuhus,62905,12.html  

# Tuhus-Dubrow R (April 12), "Head case", The Village Voice, https://www.villagevoice.com/arts/0515,edsupptuhus,62905,12.html  

# Blackman J (1994), "Psychodynamic Technique during Urgent Consultation Interviews", Journal Psychotherapy Practice & Research  

# Blackman J (1994), "Psychodynamic Technique during Urgent Consultation Interviews", Journal Psychotherapy Practice & Research  

# Tallis RC (1996), "Burying Freud", Lancet 347: 669–671, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91210-6, PMID 8596386, http://www.human-nature.com/freud/tallis.html  

# Tallis RC (1996), "Burying Freud", Lancet 347: 669–671, doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(96)91210-6, PMID 8596386, https://www.human-nature.com/freud/tallis.html  

# Wallerstein (2000), Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy  

# Wallerstein (2000), Forty-Two Lives in Treatment: A Study of Psychoanalysis and Psychotherapy  

# Blum HP, ed. (1977), Female Psychology, New York: International Universities Press  

# Blum HP, ed. (1977), Female Psychology, New York: International Universities Press  

# "Are psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapies effective", International Journal of Psychoanalysis 93, 2005, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16096078&query_hl=2  

# "Are psychodynamic and psychoanalytic therapies effective", International Journal of Psychoanalysis 93, 2005, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16096078&query_hl=2  

# Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Instituut, http://www.psychoanalytischinstituut.nl/  

# Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Instituut, https://www.psychoanalytischinstituut.nl/  

# Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Genootschap, http://www.npg-utrecht.nl/npg.htm  

# Nederlands Psychoanalytisch Genootschap, https://www.npg-utrecht.nl/npg.htm  

# Popper KR, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations", reprinted in Grim P (1990) Philosophy of Science and the Occult, Albany, pp. 104-110. See also Conjectures and Refutations.

# Popper KR, "Science: Conjectures and Refutations", reprinted in Grim P (1990) Philosophy of Science and the Occult, Albany, pp. 104-110. See also Conjectures and Refutations.

# Weeks, Jeffrey (1989). Sexuality and its Discontents: Meanings, Myths, and Modern Sexualities. New York: Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 0-415-04503-7.  

# Weeks, Jeffrey (1989). Sexuality and its Discontents: Meanings, Myths, and Modern Sexualities. New York: Routledge. p. 176. ISBN 0-415-04503-7.  

==External links==

==External links==

*[http://www.personalityresearch.org/psychoanalysis.html Great Ideas in Personality]

*[https://www.personalityresearch.org/psychoanalysis.html Great Ideas in Personality]

*[http://www.socioportal.ru/ Terms and concepts of Psychoanalytic (rus)]

*[https://www.socioportal.ru/ Terms and concepts of Psychoanalytic (rus)]

[[Category: Psychology]]

[[Category: Psychology]]