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The '''social sciences''' are a group of academic disciplines that study human aspects of the world. They diverge from the [[arts]] and [[humanities]] in that the social sciences tend to emphasize the use of the [[scientific method]] in the study of humanity, including [[quantitative method|quantitative]] and [[qualitative method|qualitative]] methods.   

The '''social sciences''' are a group of academic disciplines that study human aspects of the world. They diverge from the [[arts]] and [[humanities]] in that the social sciences tend to emphasize the use of the [[scientific method]] in the study of humanity, including [[quantitative method|quantitative]] and [[qualitative method|qualitative]] methods.   

   

   

The social sciences,<ref>The ''[[Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]]'' is a comprehensive source, for example.</ref> in studying subjective, inter-subjective and objective or structural aspects of society, were traditionally referred to as ''[[soft sciences]]''. This is in contrast to ''[[hard sciences]]'', such as the [[natural science]], which may focus exclusively on objective aspects of nature. Nowadays, however, the distinction between the so-called soft and hard sciences is blurred. Some social science subfields have become very quantitative in methodology or behavioral in approach. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it have made many of the so-called hard sciences dependent on social science methodology. Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social studies of [[medicine]], [[neuropsychology]], [[bioeconomics]] and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences.  

The social sciences, The ''[[Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]]'' is a comprehensive source, for example in studying subjective, inter-subjective and objective or structural aspects of society, were traditionally referred to as ''[[soft sciences]]''. This is in contrast to ''[[hard sciences]]'', such as the [[natural science]], which may focus exclusively on objective aspects of nature. Nowadays, however, the distinction between the so-called soft and hard sciences is blurred. Some social science subfields have become very quantitative in methodology or behavioral in approach. Conversely, the interdisciplinary and cross-disciplinary nature of scientific inquiry into human behavior and social and environmental factors affecting it have made many of the so-called hard sciences dependent on social science methodology. Examples of boundary blurring include emerging disciplines like social studies of [[medicine]], [[neuropsychology]], [[bioeconomics]] and the history and sociology of science. Increasingly, quantitative and qualitative methods are being integrated in the study of human action and its implications and consequences.  

== History of the social sciences ==

== History of the social sciences ==

 

The word "science" is older than its modern use, which is as a short-form for "natural science". Uses of the word "science", in contexts other than those of the natural sciences, are historically valid, so long as they are describing an art or organized body of knowledge which can be taught objectively. The use of the word "science" is not therefore always an attempt to claim that the subject in question ought to stand on the same footing of inquiry as a natural science.

The word "science" is older than its modern use, which is as a short-form for "natural science". Uses of the word "science", in contexts other than those of the natural sciences, are historically valid, so long as they are describing an art or organized body of knowledge which can be taught objectively. The use of the word "science" is not therefore always an attempt to claim that the subject in question ought to stand on the same footing of inquiry as a natural science.

===Ancient Greece===

===Ancient Greece===

 

In [[ancient philosophy]], there was no difference between [[mathematics]] and the study of [[history]], [[poetry]] or [[politics]]. Only with the development of [[mathematical proof]] did there gradually arise a perceived difference between "scientific" disciplines and others, the "humanities" or the [[liberal arts]]. Thus, [[Aristotle]] studied [[Orbit|planetary motion]] and poetry with the same methods, and [[Plato]] mixes [[geometrical]] proofs with his demonstration on the state of intrinsic knowledge.

In [[ancient philosophy]], there was no difference between [[mathematics]] and the study of [[history]], [[poetry]] or [[politics]]. Only with the development of [[mathematical proof]] did there gradually arise a perceived difference between "scientific" disciplines and others, the "humanities" or the [[liberal arts]]. Thus, [[Aristotle]] studied [[Orbit|planetary motion]] and poetry with the same methods, and [[Plato]] mixes [[geometrical]] proofs with his demonstration on the state of intrinsic knowledge.

===Islamic civilization===

===Islamic civilization===

[[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) is regarded as the father of [[demography]],<ref name=Mowlana>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.</ref> [[historiography]],<ref>Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.</ref> the [[philosophy of history]],<ref name=Akhtar>Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).</ref> [[sociology]],<ref name=Mowlana/><ref name=Akhtar/> and the social sciences,<ref>Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '''56''' (1), p. 25.</ref> and is viewed as one of the forerunners of modern [[economics]]. He is best known for his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (''Prolegomenon'' in [[Latin]]).

 

[[Ibn Khaldun]] (1332-1406) is regarded as the father of [[demography]],<ref name=Mowlana>H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '''1'''.[[historiography]], Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). ''A Dictionary of Muslim Names''. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569. The [[philosophy of history]],Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", ''Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture'' '''12''' (3).[[sociology]],and the social sciences, Akbar Ahmed (2002). "Ibn Khaldun’s Understanding of Civilizations and the Dilemmas of Islam and the West Today", ''Middle East Journal'' '''56''' (1), p. 25. and is viewed as one of the forerunners of modern [[economics]]. He is best known for his ''[[Muqaddimah]]'' (''Prolegomenon'' in [[Latin]]).

===European enlightenment===

===European enlightenment===

 

During the European [[Age of Enlightenment]], this unity of science as descriptive remains, for example, in the time of [[Thomas Hobbes]] who argued that [[deductive reasoning]] from [[axiom]]s created a scientific framework, and hence his ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]'' was a scientific description of a political [[commonwealth]]. What would happen within decades of his work was a revolution in what constituted "science", particularly the work of [[Isaac Newton]] in physics. Newton, by revolutionizing what was then called "natural philosophy", changed the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific".

During the European [[Age of Enlightenment]], this unity of science as descriptive remains, for example, in the time of [[Thomas Hobbes]] who argued that [[deductive reasoning]] from [[axiom]]s created a scientific framework, and hence his ''[[Leviathan (book)|Leviathan]]'' was a scientific description of a political [[commonwealth]]. What would happen within decades of his work was a revolution in what constituted "science", particularly the work of [[Isaac Newton]] in physics. Newton, by revolutionizing what was then called "natural philosophy", changed the basic framework by which individuals understood what was "scientific".

===Nineteenth century===

===Nineteenth century===

 

The term "social science" first appeared in the 1824 book ''An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; applied to the Newly Proposed System of Voluntary Equality of Wealth'' by [[William Thompson (philosopher)|William Thompson]] (1775-1833). [[Auguste Comte]] (1797-1857) argued that ideas pass through three rising stages, [[Theological]], [[Philosophical]] and [[Scientific]]. He defined the difference as the first being rooted in assumption, the second in [[critical thinking]], and the third in positive observation. This framework, still rejected by many, encapsulates the thinking which was to push [[economic]] study from being a descriptive to a mathematically based discipline. [[Karl Marx]] was one of the first writers to claim that his methods of research represented a [[science|scientific]] view of history in this model.

The term "social science" first appeared in the 1824 book ''An Inquiry into the Principles of the Distribution of Wealth Most Conducive to Human Happiness; applied to the Newly Proposed System of Voluntary Equality of Wealth'' by [[William Thompson (philosopher)|William Thompson]] (1775-1833). [[Auguste Comte]] (1797-1857) argued that ideas pass through three rising stages, [[Theological]], [[Philosophical]] and [[Scientific]]. He defined the difference as the first being rooted in assumption, the second in [[critical thinking]], and the third in positive observation. This framework, still rejected by many, encapsulates the thinking which was to push [[economic]] study from being a descriptive to a mathematically based discipline. [[Karl Marx]] was one of the first writers to claim that his methods of research represented a [[science|scientific]] view of history in this model.

===Twentieth century===

===Twentieth century===

 

In the first half of the 20th century, [[statistics]] became a free-standing discipline of [[applied mathematics]]. Statistical methods were used confidently, for example in an increasingly statistical view of biology.  

In the first half of the 20th century, [[statistics]] became a free-standing discipline of [[applied mathematics]]. Statistical methods were used confidently, for example in an increasingly statistical view of biology.  

With the rise of the idea of quantitative measurement in the physical sciences, for example [[Lord Rutherford]]'s famous maxim that any knowledge that one cannot measure numerically "is a poor sort of knowledge", the stage was set for the conception of the humanities as being precursors to "social science."

With the rise of the idea of quantitative measurement in the physical sciences, for example [[Lord Rutherford]]'s famous maxim that any knowledge that one cannot measure numerically "is a poor sort of knowledge", the stage was set for the conception of the humanities as being precursors to "social science."

This change was not, and is not, without its detractors, both inside of academia and outside. The range of critiques begin from those who believe that the [[physical sciences]] are qualitatively different from social sciences {{Fact|date=February 2007}}, through those who do not believe in statistical science of any kind {{Fact|date=February 2007}}, through those who disagree with the [[methodology]] and kinds of conclusion of social science {{Fact|date=February 2007}}, to those who believe the entire framework of scientificizing these disciplines is solely, or mostly, from a desire for prestige and to alienate the public {{Fact|date=February 2007}}.

This change was not, and is not, without its detractors, both inside of academia and outside. The range of critiques begin from those who believe that the [[physical sciences]] are qualitatively different from social sciences, through those who do not believe in statistical science of any kind, through those who disagree with the [[methodology]] and kinds of conclusion of social science, to those who believe the entire framework of scientificizing these disciplines is solely, or mostly, from a desire for prestige and to alienate the public.

===Rise===

===Rise===

==Social science disciplines==

==Social science disciplines==

===Anthropology===

===Anthropology===

 

[[Anthropology]] is the holistic discipline that deals with the integration of different aspects of the Social Sciences, [[Humanities]], and [[Human biology|Human Biology]]. It includes [[Archaeology]], [[Prehistory]] and [[Paleontology]], [[Physical Anthropology|Physical]] or [[Physical Anthropology|Biological Anthropology]], [[Anthropological Linguistics]], [[Social Anthropology|Social]] and [[Cultural Anthropology]], [[Ethnology]] and [[Ethnography]]. The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for "human being" or "person." [[Eric Wolf]] described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences."

[[Anthropology]] is the holistic discipline that deals with the integration of different aspects of the Social Sciences, [[Humanities]], and [[Human biology|Human Biology]]. It includes [[Archaeology]], [[Prehistory]] and [[Paleontology]], [[Physical Anthropology|Physical]] or [[Physical Anthropology|Biological Anthropology]], [[Anthropological Linguistics]], [[Social Anthropology|Social]] and [[Cultural Anthropology]], [[Ethnology]] and [[Ethnography]]. The word anthropos (άνθρωπος) is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for "human being" or "person." [[Eric Wolf]] described sociocultural anthropology as "the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences."

===Economics===

===Economics===

 

[[Economics]] is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109547?query=Economics&ct=] The word "economics" is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] polytonic|οἶκος [''oikos''], "family, household, estate," and  νόμος [''nomos''], "custom, law," and hence means "household management" or "management of the state." An [[economist]] is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a university [[academic degree|degree]] in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by [[Lionel Robbins]] in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relation between scarce means having alternative uses." Absent scarcity and alternative uses, there is no [[economic problem]]. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behaviour."

[[Economics]] is a social science that seeks to analyze and describe the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9109547?query=Economics&ct=]</ref> The word "economics" is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|οἶκος}} [''oikos''], "family, household, estate," and  νόμος [''nomos''], "custom, law," and hence means "household management" or "management of the state." An [[economist]] is a person using economic concepts and data in the course of employment, or someone who has earned a university [[academic degree|degree]] in the subject. The classic brief definition of economics, set out by [[Lionel Robbins]] in 1932, is "the science which studies human behavior as a relation between scarce means having alternative uses." Absent scarcity and alternative uses, there is no [[economic problem]]. Briefer yet is "the study of how people seek to satisfy needs and wants" and "the study of the financial aspects of human behaviour."

Economics has two broad branches: [[microeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household, firm and [[macroeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from [[normative]] economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve [[Subjectivity|subjective]] value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the [[physiocrats|physiocratic school]]. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to social situations where there is no monetary consideration, such as [[public choice theory|politics]], [[law]], [[Experimental economics|psychology]], [[Economic history|history]], [[religion]], [[marriage]] and family life, and other social interactions.

Economics has two broad branches: [[microeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is the individual agent, such as a household, firm and [[macroeconomics]], where the unit of analysis is an economy as a whole. Another division of the subject distinguishes [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] economics, which seeks to predict and explain economic phenomena, from [[normative]] economics, which orders choices and actions by some criterion; such orderings necessarily involve [[Subjectivity|subjective]] value judgments. Since the early part of the 20th century, economics has focused largely on measurable quantities, employing both theoretical models and empirical analysis. Quantitative models, however, can be traced as far back as the [[physiocrats|physiocratic school]]. Economic reasoning has been increasingly applied in recent decades to social situations where there is no monetary consideration, such as [[public choice theory|politics]], [[law]], [[Experimental economics|psychology]], [[Economic history|history]], [[religion]], [[marriage]] and family life, and other social interactions.

===Education===

===Education===

 

Education [[List of education topics|encompasses]] [[teaching]] and [[learning]] specific [[skill]]s, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of [[knowledge]], positive [[judgement]] and well-developed [[wisdom]]. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of [[culture]] from generation to generation (see [[socialization]]). Education means 'to draw out', facilitating realisation of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. It is an application of [[pedagogy]], a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as [[psychology]], [[philosophy]], [[computer science]], [[linguistics]], [[neuroscience]], [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]].[https://www.teachersmind.com/education.htm An overview of education]

Education [[List of education topics|encompasses]] [[teaching]] and [[learning]] specific [[skill]]s, and also something less tangible but more profound: the imparting of [[knowledge]], positive [[judgement]] and well-developed [[wisdom]]. Education has as one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of [[culture]] from generation to generation (see [[socialization]]). Education means 'to draw out', facilitating realisation of self-potential and latent talents of an individual. It is an application of [[pedagogy]], a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and learning and draws on many disciplines such as [[psychology]], [[philosophy]], [[computer science]], [[linguistics]], [[neuroscience]], [[sociology]] and [[anthropology]]. <ref>[http://www.teachersmind.com/education.htm An overview of education]</ref>

The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. (Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.) For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily [[personal life | life]] provide far more instruction than does formal [[school]]ing (thus [[Mark Twain]]'s admonition to "never let school interfere with your education"). [[Family]] members may have a profound educational effect &mdash; often more profound than they realize &mdash; though family teaching may function very informally.

The education of an individual human begins at birth and continues throughout life. (Some believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.) For some, the struggles and triumphs of daily [[personal life | life]] provide far more instruction than does formal [[school]]ing (thus [[Mark Twain]]'s admonition to "never let school interfere with your education"). [[Family]] members may have a profound educational effect &mdash; often more profound than they realize &mdash; though family teaching may function very informally.

===Geography===

===Geography===

 

Geographers attempt to understand the [[earth]] in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of [[mapmaking]] and finding ways to precisely [[Map projection|project]] the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences.

Geographers attempt to understand the [[earth]] in terms of physical and spatial relationships. The first geographers focused on the science of [[mapmaking]] and finding ways to precisely [[Map projection|project]] the surface of the earth. In this sense, geography bridges some gaps between the natural sciences and social sciences.

===Law===

===Law===

 

Law in common parlance, means a rule which (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions. Crimes Against Humanity by Geoffrey Robertson isbn=9780141024639. The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a "system of rules",[[The Concept of Law]] Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-876122-8 as an "interpretive concept Law's Empire ISBN 0674518365 to achieve justice, as an "authority" The Authority of Law, Oxford University Press to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction". John Austin (legal philosopher) The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined. However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social sciences and humanity. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about [[contract]], [[tort]], [[property law]], [[labour law]], [[company law]] and many more can have long lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun ''law'' derives from the late [[Old English language|Old English]] ''lagu'', meaning something laid down or fixed [https://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none Etymonline Dictionary] and the adjective ''legal'' comes from the Latin word ''lex''. [https://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal Mirriam-Webster's Dictionary]

Law in common parlance, means a rule which (unlike a rule of ethics) is capable of enforcement through institutions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Crimes Against Humanity|first=Geoffrey| last=Robertson| authorlink=Geoffrey Robertson|year=2006| publisher=Penguin|pages=90| isbn=9780141024639}}</ref> The study of law crosses the boundaries between the social sciences and humanities, depending on one's view of research into its objectives and effects. Law is not always enforceable, especially in the international relations context. It has been defined as a "system of rules",<ref name="hhc">{{cite book |last=Hart |first=H.L.A. |authorlink=H.L.A. Hart |title=[[The Concept of Law]] |year=1961 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=ISBN 0-19-876122-8}}</ref> as an "interpretive concept"<ref name="rdl">{{cite book |last=Dworkin |first=Ronald |authorlink=Ronald Dworkin |title=Law's Empire |year=1986 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=ISBN-10: 0674518365}}</ref> to achieve justice, as an "authority"<ref name="jra">{{cite book |last=Raz |first=Joseph |authorlink=Joseph Raz |title=The Authority of Law |year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> to mediate people's interests, and even as "the command of a sovereign, backed by the threat of a sanction".<ref name="jap"> {{cite book |last=Austin |first=John |authorlink=John Austin (legal philosopher) |title=The Providence of Jurisprudence Determined |year=1831 |publisher= |location= |isbn= }}</ref> However one likes to think of law, it is a completely central social institution. Legal policy incorporates the practical manifestation of thinking from almost every social sciences and humanity. Laws are politics, because politicians create them. Law is philosophy, because moral and ethical persuasions shape their ideas. Law tells many of history's stories, because statutes, case law and codifications build up over time. And law is economics, because any rule about [[contract]], [[tort]], [[property law]], [[labour law]], [[company law]] and many more can have long lasting effects on the distribution of wealth. The noun ''law'' derives from the late [[Old English language|Old English]] ''lagu'', meaning something laid down or fixed<ref>see [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=law&searchmode=none Etymonline Dictionary]</ref> and the adjective ''legal'' comes from the Latin word ''lex''.<ref>see [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/legal Mirriam-Webster's Dictionary]</ref>

===Linguistics===

===Linguistics===

 

Linguistics is a discipline that looks at the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is traditionally divided into areas that focus on particular aspects of the linguistic signal, such as [[syntax]] (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), [[semantics]] (the study of meaning), [[phonetics]] (the study of speech sounds) and [[phonology]] (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like [[evolutionary linguistics]] (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and [[psycholinguistics]] (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions.  

Linguistics is a discipline that looks at the cognitive and social aspects of human language. The field is traditionally divided into areas that focus on particular aspects of the linguistic signal, such as [[syntax]] (the study of the rules that govern the structure of sentences), [[semantics]] (the study of meaning), [[phonetics]] (the study of speech sounds) and [[phonology]] (the study of the abstract sound system of a particular language); however, work in areas like [[evolutionary linguistics]] (the study of the origins and evolution of language) and [[psycholinguistics]] (the study of psychological factors in human language) cut across these divisions.  

The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly [[synchronic]] perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it&mdash;partly owing to the influence of [[Noam Chomsky]]&mdash;aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, [[creole]] studies, [[discourse analysis]], social interactional linguistics, and [[sociolinguistics]] explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and [[statistics]] in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be understood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other areas, like [[acoustic phonetics]] and [[neurolinguistics]], draw on the natural sciences.  Linguistics draws only secondarily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Ferdinand Saussure]] is considered the father of modern linguistics.

The overwhelming majority of modern research in linguistics takes a predominantly [[synchronic]] perspective (focusing on language at a particular point in time), and a great deal of it&mdash;partly owing to the influence of [[Noam Chomsky]] aims at formulating theories of the cognitive processing of language. However, language does not exist in a vacuum, or only in the brain, and approaches like contact linguistics, [[creole]] studies, [[discourse analysis]], social interactional linguistics, and [[sociolinguistics]] explore language in its social context. Sociolinguistics often makes use of traditional quantitative analysis and [[statistics]] in investigating the frequency of features, while some disciplines, like contact linguistics, focus on qualitative analysis. While certain areas of linguistics can thus be understood as clearly falling within the social sciences, other areas, like [[acoustic phonetics]] and [[neurolinguistics]], draw on the natural sciences.  Linguistics draws only secondarily on the humanities, which played a rather greater role in linguistic inquiry in the 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Ferdinand Saussure]] is considered the father of modern linguistics.

===Political science===

===Political science===

 

[[Political science]] is an [[academia|academic]] and [[research]] discipline that deals with the theory and practice of [[politics]] and the description and analysis of [[political system]]s and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of political science include [[political philosophy|political theory and philosophy]], [[civics]] and [[comparative politics]], theory of [[direct democracy]], apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, [[international relations]], [[foreign policy]], [[international law]], politics, [[public administration]], administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and [[public policy]].  Political science also studies [[power in international relations]] and the theory of [[Great powers]] and [[Superpowers]].

[[Political science]] is an [[academia|academic]] and [[research]] discipline that deals with the theory and practice of [[politics]] and the description and analysis of [[political system]]s and political behaviour. Fields and subfields of political science include [[political philosophy|political theory and philosophy]], [[civics]] and [[comparative politics]], theory of [[direct democracy]], apolitical governance, participatory direct democracy, national systems, cross-national political analysis, political development, [[international relations]], [[foreign policy]], [[international law]], politics, [[public administration]], administrative behavior, public law, judicial behavior, and [[public policy]].  Political science also studies [[power in international relations]] and the theory of [[Great powers]] and [[Superpowers]].

===Psychology===

===Psychology===

 

[[Psychology]] is an [[academic]] and [[applied science|applied]] field involving the study of  behavior and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such [[knowledge]] to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' [[everyday life|daily lives]] and the treatment of [[mental illness]].   

[[Psychology]] is an [[academic]] and [[applied science|applied]] field involving the study of  behavior and mental processes. Psychology also refers to the application of such [[knowledge]] to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' [[everyday life|daily lives]] and the treatment of [[mental illness]].   

Psychology differs from [[anthropology]], [[economics]], [[political science]], and [[sociology]] in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the [[mental function]] and overt [[behaviour]] of individuals, while the other disciplines rely more heavily on field studies and historical methods for extracting descriptive generalizations.  In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields.  Psychology differs from [[biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of [[neuropsychology]] combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.  

Psychology differs from [[anthropology]], [[economics]], [[political science]], and [[sociology]] in seeking to capture explanatory generalizations about the [[mental function]] and overt [[behaviour]] of individuals, while the other disciplines rely more heavily on field studies and historical methods for extracting descriptive generalizations.  In practice, however, there is quite a lot of cross-fertilization that takes place among the various fields.  Psychology differs from [[biology]] and [[neuroscience]] in that it is primarily concerned with the interaction of mental processes and behavior, and of the overall processes of a system, and not simply the biological or neural processes themselves, though the subfield of [[neuropsychology]] combines the study of the actual neural processes with the study of the mental effects they have subjectively produced.  

Many people associate Psychology with Clinical Psychology which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology.  In reality, Psychology has myriad specialties including: Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Industrial-Organizational Psychology, [[Mathematical psychology]], Neuropsychology, and Quantitative Analysis of Behaviour to name only a few. The word ''psychology'' comes from the [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] ψυχή, ''[[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]'' ("soul", "mind") and ''[[-logy|logy]]'', study).

Many people associate Psychology with Clinical Psychology which focuses on assessment and treatment of problems in living and psychopathology.  In reality, Psychology has myriad specialties including: Social Psychology, Developmental Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Industrial-Organizational Psychology, [[Mathematical psychology]], Neuropsychology, and Quantitative Analysis of Behaviour to name only a few. The word ''psychology'' comes from the [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] ψυχή, ''[[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]]'' ("soul", "mind") and ''[[-logy|logy]]'', study).

===Sociology===

===Sociology===

 

[[Sociology]] is the study of society and human social action. It generally concerns itself with the [[social rule]]s and [[process (general)|process]]es that bind and separate people not only as [[individual]]s, but as members of [[Voluntary association|associations]], [[Group (sociology)|groups]], [[Community|communities]] and [[social institution|institutions]], and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short [[social contact|contacts]] between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of [[globalization|global social processes]]. Most sociologists work in one or more [[Subfields of sociology|subfields]].

[[Sociology]] is the study of society and human social action. It generally concerns itself with the [[social rule]]s and [[process (general)|process]]es that bind and separate people not only as [[individual]]s, but as members of [[Voluntary association|associations]], [[Group (sociology)|groups]], [[Community|communities]] and [[social institution|institutions]], and includes the examination of the organization and development of human social life. The sociological field of interest ranges from the analysis of short [[social contact|contacts]] between anonymous individuals on the street to the study of [[globalization|global social processes]]. Most sociologists work in one or more [[Subfields of sociology|subfields]].

Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional sociologists. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, [[social stratification]] studies inequality and class structure; [[demography]] studies changes in a population size or type; [[criminology]] examines criminal behavior and deviance; [[political sociology]] studies government and laws; and the sociology of race and [[sociology of gender]] examine society's racial and gender cleavages.  

Because sociology is such a broad discipline, it can be difficult to define, even for professional sociologists. One useful way to describe the discipline is as a cluster of sub-fields that examine different dimensions of society. For example, [[social stratification]] studies inequality and class structure; [[demography]] studies changes in a population size or type; [[criminology]] examines criminal behavior and deviance; [[political sociology]] studies government and laws; and the sociology of race and [[sociology of gender]] examine society's racial and gender cleavages.  

Sociological methods, theories, and concepts may inspire sociologists to explore the origins of [[common sense|commonly accepted]] conventions. Sociology offers insights about the social world that extend beyond explanations that rely on individual quirks and personalities. Sociologist may find general social patterns in studying the behaviour of particular individuals and groups. This specific approach to social reality is sometimes called the [[sociological perspective]]. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

Sociological methods, theories, and concepts may inspire sociologists to explore the origins of [[common sense|commonly accepted]] conventions. Sociology offers insights about the social world that extend beyond explanations that rely on individual quirks and personalities. Sociologist may find general social patterns in studying the behaviour of particular individuals and groups. This specific approach to social reality is sometimes called the [[sociological perspective]].  

Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, including [[case studies]], [[historiography|historical research]], [[interviewing]], [[participant observation]], [[social network analysis]], [[statistical survey|survey]] research, [[statistical analysis]], and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating [[public policy]], through subdisciplinary areas such as [[evaluation research]], methodological [[assessment]], and [[public sociology]].

Sociologists use a diversity of research methods, including [[case studies]], [[historiography|historical research]], [[interviewing]], [[participant observation]], [[social network analysis]], [[statistical survey|survey]] research, [[statistical analysis]], and model building, among other approaches. Since the late 1970s, many sociologists have tried to make the discipline useful for non-academic purposes. The results of sociological research aid educators, lawmakers, administrators, developers, and others interested in resolving social problems and formulating [[public policy]], through subdisciplinary areas such as [[evaluation research]], methodological [[assessment]], and [[public sociology]].

==Social theory and research methods==

==Social theory and research methods==

The social sciences share many social theory perspectives and research methods. Theory perspectives include various types of [[critical theory]], [[dialectical materialism]], [[feminist theory]], assorted branches of [[Marxist philosophy|Marxist theory]] such as [[Proletarian revolution|revolutionary theory]] and [[Class conflict|class theory]], [[Post-colonialism|post-colonial theory]], [[postmodernism]] as well as the related [[Anti-intellectualism|intellectual criticalism]] and [[Antiscience|scientific criticalism]], [[rational choice theory]], [[Irrationalism|rational criticalism]], [[social constructionism]], [[structuralism]], and [[structural functionalism]]. Research methods shared include a wide variety of [[quantitative method|quantitative]] and [[qualitative method|qualitative]] methods.

The social sciences share many social theory perspectives and research methods. Theory perspectives include various types of [[critical theory]], [[dialectical materialism]], [[feminist theory]], assorted branches of [[Marxist philosophy|Marxist theory]] such as [[Proletarian revolution|revolutionary theory]] and [[Class conflict|class theory]], [[Post-colonialism|post-colonial theory]], [[postmodernism]] as well as the related [[Anti-intellectualism|intellectual criticalism]] and [[Antiscience|scientific criticalism]], [[rational choice theory]], [[Irrationalism|rational criticalism]], [[social constructionism]], [[structuralism]], and [[structural functionalism]]. Research methods shared include a wide variety of [[quantitative method|quantitative]] and [[qualitative method|qualitative]] methods.

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==Criticism==

==Criticism==

 

The social sciences are sometimes criticized as being less scientific than the [[natural sciences]], in that they are seen as being less rigorous or empirical in their methods.  This claim is most commonly made when comparing social sciences to fields such as physics, chemistry or biology in which corroboration of the hypothesis is far more incisive with regard to data observed from specifically designed experiments. Social sciences can thus be deemed to be largely observational, in that explanations for cause-effect relationships are largely subjective. A limited degree of freedom is available in designing the factor setting for a particular observational study.

The social sciences are sometimes criticized as being less scientific than the [[natural sciences]], in that they are seen as being less rigorous or empirical in their methods.  This claim is most commonly made when comparing social sciences to fields such as physics, chemistry or biology in which corroboration of the hypothesis is far more incisive with regard to data observed from specifically designed experiments. Social sciences can thus be deemed to be largely observational, in that explanations for cause-effect relationships are largely subjective. A limited degree of freedom is available in designing the factor setting for a particular observational study.

Social scientists however, argue against such claims by pointing to the use of  a rich variety of scientific processes, mathematical proofs, and other methods in their professional literature. Others, however argue that the social world is much too complex to be studied as one would study static molecules.  The actions or reactions of a molecule or chemical substance are always the same when placed in certain situations.  Humans, on the other hand, are much too complex for these traditional scientific methodologies.  Humans and society do not have certain rules that always have the same outcome and they cannot guarantee to react the same way to certain situations. A third criticism is that social sciences tend to be compromised more frequently by politics, since results from social science may threaten certain centers of power in a society, particularly ones which fund the research institutions. Further, complexity exacerbates the problems, since observed social data may be the result of factors which are hard to evaluate in isolation.

Social scientists however, argue against such claims by pointing to the use of  a rich variety of scientific processes, mathematical proofs, and other methods in their professional literature. Others, however argue that the social world is much too complex to be studied as one would study static molecules.  The actions or reactions of a molecule or chemical substance are always the same when placed in certain situations.  Humans, on the other hand, are much too complex for these traditional scientific methodologies.  Humans and society do not have certain rules that always have the same outcome and they cannot guarantee to react the same way to certain situations. A third criticism is that social sciences tend to be compromised more frequently by politics, since results from social science may threaten certain centers of power in a society, particularly ones which fund the research institutions. Further, complexity exacerbates the problems, since observed social data may be the result of factors which are hard to evaluate in isolation.

Not all institutions recognize some fields listed above as social sciences or as being only social scientific. Some disciplines have characteristics of both the humanities, social and natural sciences: for example some subfields of [[anthropology]], such as [[biological anthropology]], are closely related to the natural sciences whereas [[archaeology]] and [[linguistics]] are social sciences, while cultural anthropology is very much linked with the humanities. Note that social science methodologies are being incorporated into so-called hard science fields like medicine, where a three-legged stool to the understanding of physical well-being is now emphasized in the medical curriculum: biological, socio-psychological, and environmental.

Not all institutions recognize some fields listed above as social sciences or as being only social scientific. Some disciplines have characteristics of both the humanities, social and natural sciences: for example some subfields of [[anthropology]], such as [[biological anthropology]], are closely related to the natural sciences whereas [[archaeology]] and [[linguistics]] are social sciences, while cultural anthropology is very much linked with the humanities. Note that social science methodologies are being incorporated into so-called hard science fields like medicine, where a three-legged stool to the understanding of physical well-being is now emphasized in the medical curriculum: biological, socio-psychological, and environmental.

==Notes and references==

==Book sources==

The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand [[encyclopedia]] of [[Diderot]], with articles from [[Rousseau]] and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in its specialised encyclopedias. The older editions are therefore of strong historical interest while the newest reflects current discussions, methodologies and ideologies.

The beginnings of the social sciences in the 18th century are reflected in the grand [[encyclopedia]] of [[Diderot]], with articles from [[Rousseau]] and other pioneers. The growth of the social sciences is also reflected in its specialised encyclopedias. The older editions are therefore of strong historical interest while the newest reflects current discussions, methodologies and ideologies.

* 1934, [[Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]]

* 1934, [[Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]]

* 1968, [[International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]] Edited by [[David L. Sills]] and [[Robert K. Merton]].

* 1968, [[International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences]] Edited by [[David L. Sills]] and [[Robert K. Merton]].

* 2001, [[International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences]] / ed.-in-chief [[Neil J. Smelser]]; [[Paul B. Baltes]], Amsterdam [etc.] : Elsevier, 2001-

* 2001, [[International Encyclopedia of Social and Behavioral Sciences]] / ed.-in-chief [[Neil J. Smelser]]; [[Paul B. Baltes]], Amsterdam : Elsevier

== Further reading ==

== Further reading ==

* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology]

* [https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology Wikibooks: Introduction to sociology]

* Efferson, C. & Richerson, P.J. (In press). A prolegomenon to nonlinear empiricism in the human behavioral sciences. ''Philosophy and Biology''. [http://www.des.ucdavis.edu/faculty/richerson/Prolegomena%204%200.pdf Full text]

* Efferson, C. & Richerson, P.J. (In press). A prolegomenon to nonlinear empiricism in the human behavioral sciences. ''Philosophy and Biology''. [https://www.des.ucdavis.edu/faculty/richerson/Prolegomena%204%200.pdf Full text]

*[http://www.holycross.edu/departments/socant/rsinglet/ Singleton, Royce, A.], Straits, Bruce C., [http://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Sociology/TheoryMethods/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE0Nzk0MA== "Approaches to Social Research"], [[Oxford University Press]], 1988. ISBN 0195147944

*[https://www.holycross.edu/departments/socant/rsinglet/ Singleton, Royce, A.], Straits, Bruce C., [https://www.us.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Sociology/TheoryMethods/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE0Nzk0MA== "Approaches to Social Research"], [[Oxford University Press]], 1988. ISBN 0195147944

== Academic resources ==

== Academic resources ==

* The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ISSN: [http://ann.sagepub.com/ 1552-3349] (electronic) ISSN: 0002-7162 (paper), SAGE Publications

* The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, ISSN: [https://ann.sagepub.com/ 1552-3349] (electronic) ISSN: 0002-7162 (paper), SAGE Publications

==See also==

==See also==

* [[List of academic disciplines]]

* [[List of academic disciplines]]

* [[Science]]

* [[Science]]

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://www.dialogical.net/socialsciences/index.html Social Science Virtual Library]

* [https://www.dialogical.net/socialsciences/index.html Social Science Virtual Library]

* [http://xlab.berkeley.edu UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory]

* [https://xlab.berkeley.edu UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory]

* [http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/ Intute: Social Sciences] (UK)

* [https://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/ Intute: Social Sciences] (UK)

* [http://www.ceunit.com psychologists]

* [https://www.ceunit.com psychologists]

* [http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/sshtim.htm History of Social Science]

* [https://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/sshtim.htm History of Social Science]

* [http://www.polyarchy.org/poststatism/english/index.html On the Social Sciences] Critical Essays

* [https://www.polyarchy.org/poststatism/english/index.html On the Social Sciences] Critical Essays

* [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/praxeologymethod.pdf praxeology as the method of the social sciences]

* [https://www.mises.org/rothbard/praxeologymethod.pdf praxeology as the method of the social sciences]

* [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/extreme.pdf in defense of extreme apriorism]

* [https://www.mises.org/rothbard/extreme.pdf in defense of extreme apriorism][https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Social_sciences&action=edit]

 

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]