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| − | '''Terrorism''' in the modern sense is [[violence]] or other harmful acts committed (or threatened) against civilians for political or other ideological goals."The divergent assessments of the same evidence on such an important issue shocks a leading terrorism researcher. 'The notion of terrorism is fairly straightforward — it is ideologically or politically motivated violence directed against civilian targets.'" said Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University." Humphreys, Adrian. [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=a64f73d2-f672-4bd0-abb3-2584029db496] "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'"], ''[[National Post]],'' [[January 17]], [[2006]]. Most [[Definition of terrorism|definitions of terrorism]] include only those acts which are intended to create fear or "terror", are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or utterly disregard the safety of [[non-combatants]]. Many definitions also include only acts of [[unlawful]] violence. | + | ==Origin== |
| | + | "Terrorism" comes from the French word ''terrorisme'', and originally referred specifically to state terrorism as [[practiced]] by the French government during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reign_of_terror Reign of terror]. The French word ''terrorisme'' in turn derives from the [[Latin]] verb ''terreō'' meaning “I frighten”. The ''terror cimbricus'' was a panic and state of [[emergency]] in [[Rome]] in response to the approach of warriors of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimbri Cimbri] tribe in 105 BC. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacobin_Club Jacobins] cited this precedent when imposing a Reign of Terror during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution French Revolution]. After the Jacobins lost power, the word "terrorist" became a term of [[abuse]]. Although "terrorism" originally referred to acts [[committed]] by a [[government]], currently it usually refers to the killing of innocent people by a non-government group in such a way as to create a [[media]] [[spectacle]]. This meaning can be traced back to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Nechayev Sergey Nechayev], who described himself as a "terrorist". Nechayev founded the Russian terrorist group "People's Retribution" (Народная расправа) in 1869. |
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| − | As a form of [[unconventional warfare]], terrorism is sometimes used when attempting to force political change by convincing a government or population to agree to demands to avoid future harm or fear of harm, destabilizing an existing government, motivating a disgruntled [[residents|population]] to join an rebellion or uprising, escalating a conflict in the hopes of disrupting the [[status quo]], expressing a grievance, or drawing attention to a cause.
| + | In November 2004, a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Secretary_General United Nations Secretary General] report described terrorism as any act "intended to cause [[death]] or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the [[purpose]] of intimidating a [[population]] or compelling a [[government]] or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act". |
| | + | *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/18th_century 1795] |
| | + | <center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Terrorism''''', follow [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Terrorism '''''this link'''''].</center> |
| | + | ==Definition== |
| | + | *1: the [[systematic]] use of [[fear]] especially as a means of [[coercion]] |
| | + | ==Description== |
| | + | '''Terrorism''' is the [[systematic]] use of terror, often [[violent]], especially as a means of [[coercion]]. In the international [[community]], however, terrorism has no legally binding, criminal [[law]] [[definition]]. Common definitions of terrorism refer only to those violent [[acts]] which are intended to create [[fear]] (terror); are perpetrated for a [[religious]], [[political]], or [[ideological]] goal; and deliberately target or disregard the safety of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-combatant non-combatants] (civilians). Some definitions now include acts of unlawful violence and [[war]]. The use of similar [[tactics]] by [[criminal]] organizations for [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protection_racket protection rackets] or to enforce a code of [[silence]] is usually not labeled terrorism, though these same actions may be labeled terrorism when done by a [[politically]] [[motivated]] group. The writer Heinrich Böll and scholars Raj Desai and Harry Eckstein have suggested that attempts to protect against terrorism may lead to a kind of social [[oppression]]. |
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| − | Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organizations in furthering their objectives; both right-wing and left-wing political parties, [[nationalism|nationalistic]], and religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments.[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9071797] Terrorism, Encyclopædia Britannica, The presence of non-state actors in widespread armed conflict has created controversy regarding the application of the [[laws of war]].
| + | The word "terrorism" is politically and [[emotionally]] charged, and this greatly compounds the [[difficulty]] of providing a [[precise]] [[definition]]. Studies have found over 100 definitions of “terrorism”. The concept of terrorism may be [[controversial]] as it is often used by state [[authorities]] (and [[individuals]] with [[access]] to state support) to delegitimize political or other opponents, and potentially legitimize the state's own use of armed force against opponents (such use of force may be described as "terror" by opponents of the state). |
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| − | An International Round Table on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing Terror (2004) hosted by [[Strategic Foresight Group]] recommended that a distinction should be made between terrorism and acts of terror. While acts of terror are criminal acts as per the [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373]] and [[Anti-terrorism legislation|domestic jurisprudence]] of almost all countries in the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the perpetrators of acts of terror themselves and their motives. There is disagreement on definitions of terrorism. However, there is an intellectual [[consensus]] globally, that acts of terror should not be accepted under any circumstances. This is reflected in all important conventions including the United Nations [[counter terrorism]] strategy, the decisions of the Madrid Conference on terrorism, the Strategic Foresight Group and [[ALDE]] Round Tables at the [[European Parliament]].
| + | Terrorism has been [[practiced]] by a broad [[array]] of political [[organizations]] to further their [[objectives]]. It has been [[practiced]] by both right-wing and left-wing political parties, [[nationalistic]] groups, [[religious]] groups, revolutionaries, and ruling [[governments]]. An abiding characteristic is the indiscriminate use of [[violence]] against noncombatants for the purpose of gaining [[publicity]] for a group, cause, or individual. The [[symbolism]] of terrorism can [[leverage]] human [[fear]] to help achieve these goals. |
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| − | ==Official definitions==
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| − | The word "terrorism" was first used in reference to the [[Reign of Terror]] during the [[French Revolution]]. A 1988 study by the [[United States Army]] found that more than one hundred definitions of the word exist and have been used. Dr. Jeffrey Record, [http://carlisle-www.army.mil/ssi/pubs/2003/bounding/bounding.pdf Bounding the Global War on Terrorism](PDF)
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| − | Terrorism is a crime in all countries where such acts occur, and is defined by statute — see ''[[Definition of terrorism]]'' for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of [[Right to resist occupation|legitimate use of violence]] by civilians against an invader in an [[Occupied territories|occupied country]] and would, thus, label all [[resistance movement]]s as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the distinction is a [[Politics|political]] judgment.Ali Khan, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935347 A LEGAL THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM] Published in 19 Connecticut Law Review 945-972(1987) | |
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| − | In November 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as any act: "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act." In a [http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73] commentary issued by the UN] it states that ''The second part of the report [[titled "Larger Freedom." by Kofi Annan, Secretary General, United Nations at the Security Council Meeting on [[17 March]], [[2005]]], entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism - an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community - as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."''
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| − | ==Key criteria==
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| − | Official definitions determine counter-terrorism policy and are often developed to serve it. Most government definitions outline the following key criteria: target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or legality of the act. Terrorism is also often recognizable by a following statement from the perpetrators.
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| − | '''Violence''' According to Walter Laqueur of the [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]], "the only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence". However, the criterion of violence alone does not produce a useful definition, as it includes many acts not usually considered terrorism: [[war]], [[riot]], [[organized crime]], or even a simple [[assault]]. Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a [[violent crime]], but some have described property destruction by the [[Earth Liberation Front]] and [[Animal Liberation Front]] as terrorism.
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| − | '''Psychological impact and fear''' The attack was carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a “performance,” a product of internal logic, devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show their power and to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government's legitimacy, while increasing the legitimacy of the given [[terrorist organization]] and/or [[ideology]] behind a terrorist act. Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. ''Terror in the Mind of God''. University of California Press. Ch. 7 pp. 125-135 </ref>
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| − | '''Perpetrated for a Political Goal''' – Something all terrorist attacks have in common is their perpetration for a political purpose. Terrorism is a political tactic, not unlike letter writing or protesting, that is used by activists when they believe no other means will effect the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"<ref> Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. ''Terror in the Mind of God.'' University of California Press. Ch 8-10. struggle, such as over the control of an ancestral homeland or holy site such as Israel and Jerusalem, failing in the political goal (nationalism) becomes equated with spiritual failure, which, for the highly committed, is worse than their own death or the deaths of innocent civilians.
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| − | '''Deliberate targeting of non-combatants''' It is commonly held that the distinctive nature of terrorism lies in its intentional and specific selection of [[civilian]]s as direct targets. Much of the time, the victims of terrorism are targeted not because they are threats, but because they are specific "symbols, tools, animals or corrupt beings" that tie into a specific view of the world that the terrorist possess. Their suffering accomplishes the terrorists' goals of instilling fear, getting a message out to an audience, or otherwise accomplishing their political end. Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. ''Terror in the Mind of God''. University of California Press. Ch. 7 pp. 127-128
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| − | '''Unlawfulness or illegitimacy''' Some official (notably government) definitions of terrorism add a criterion of illegitimacy or unlawfulness FBI, [http://www.fbi.gov/publications/terror/terror99.pdf] Terrorism in the United States 1999] to distinguish between actions authorized by a "legitimate" government (and thus "lawful") and those of other actors, including individuals and small groups. Using this criterion, actions that would otherwise qualify as terrorism would not be considered terrorism if they were government sanctioned. For example, firebombing a city, which is designed to affect civilian support for a cause, would not be considered terrorism if it were authorized by a "legitimate" government. This criterion is inherently problematic and is not universally accepted, because: it denies the existence of [[state terrorism]]; the same act may or may not be classed as terrorism depending on whether its sponsorship is traced to a "legitimate" government; "legitimacy" and "lawfulness" are subjective, depending on the perspective of one government or another; and it diverges from the historically accepted meaning and origin of the term.[http://www.askoxford.com/results/?view=dev_dict&field-12668446=terrorism&branch=13842570&textsearchtype=exact&sortorder=score%2Cname Ask Oxford Dictionary] [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=82104&dict=CALD Cambridge International Dictionary of English][http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/terrorism Dictionary.com] [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=terrorism Online Etymology Dictionary] For these reasons this criterion is not universally accepted. Most dictionary definitions of the term do not include this criterion.
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| − | ==Pejorative use==
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| − | The terms "terrorism" and '''"terrorist"''' (someone who engages in terrorism) carry a strong negative connotation. These terms are often used as political labels to condemn violence or threat of violence by certain actors as immoral, indiscriminate, or unjustified. Those labeled "terrorists" rarely identify themselves as such, and typically use other euphemistic terms or terms specific to their situation, such as: [[separatist]], [[freedom fighter]], liberator, [[revolutionary]], [[vigilante]], [[militant]], [[paramilitary]], [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]], [[rebellion|rebel]], [[jihad]]i or [[mujaheddin]], or [[fedayeen]], or any similar-meaning word in other languages.
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| − | In his book "''Inside Terrorism''" Bruce Hoffman wrote in ''Chapter One: Defining Terrorism'' that
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| − | on one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, `'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization `terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism. Hoffman, Bruce "''Inside Terrorism''" Columbia University Press 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Page 32. See review in The [[New York Times]][http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html Inside Terrorism] [http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:RPT6zpTtE08J:www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html+%22everyone+agrees:+terrorism+is+a+pejorative+term%22&hl=en&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=1&lr=lang_en Google cached copy]
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| − | The difference between the words "terrorist" or "terrorism" and the terms above can be summed up by the [[aphorism]], "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter." This is exemplified when a group that uses [[irregular military]] methods is an ally of a [[State]] against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the State and starts to use the same methods against its former ally. During World War II the [[Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army]] was allied with the British, but during the [[Malayan Emergency]], members of its successor, the [[Malayan Races Liberation Army]], were branded terrorists by the British.[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371060/Malayan-People's-Anti-Japanese-Army Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army] Britannica Concis, Dr Chris Clark ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948]'', [[16 June]], [[2003]] More recently, [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in the American administration frequently called the [[mujaheddin#Afghan Mujahideen|Afghan Mujahideen]] freedom fighters during [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|their war]] against the [[Soviet Union]],[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAreagan.htm Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference] [[8 March]], 1985. On the [[Spartacus Educational]] yet twenty years later when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks are labelled terrorism by [[George W. Bush]].[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020128-13.html] President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman][http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060209-2.html] President Discusses Progress in War on Terror to National Guard] [[White House]] web site [[February 9]], [[2006]] Groups accused of terrorism usually prefer terms that reflect legitimate military or ideological action.Sudha Ramachandran ''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FK12Ak01.html] Death behind the wheel in Iraq]'' [[Asian Times]], [[November 12]] [[2004]], "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..." Alex Perry [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1109554,00.html] How Much to Tip the Terrorist?] [[Time Magazine]], [[September 26]], [[2005]]. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dtra/terrorism_concepts.doc TERRORISM: CONCEPTS, CAUSES, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION] [[George Mason University]] [[Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution]], Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003 Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's [[Carleton University]], defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and goes on to say:
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| − | <blockquote>"There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly leading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless." Humphreys, Adrian".</blockquote> [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html]
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| − | Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called terrorist by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called statesmen by similar organizations. Two examples are [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureates [[Menachem Begin]] and [[Nelson Mandela]]. Theodore P. Seto ''[http://llr.lls.edu/volumes/v35-issue4/seto.pdf] The Morality of Terrorism]'' Includes a list in the [[Times]] published on [[July 23]] [[1946]] which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/israel_at_50/profiles/81305.stm] BBC News: PROFILES: Menachem Begin] BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence." Eqbal Ahmad ''"[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-1328039/Straight-talk-on-terrorism.html Straight talk on terrorism]"'' [[Monthly Review]], January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4583684.stmBBC NEWS: World: Middle East: Sharon's legacy does not include peace] BBC website "Ariel Sharon will be compared to Menachem Begin, another warrior turned statesman, who gave up the Sinai and made peace with Egypt."Lord Desai [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo980903/text/80903-04.htm] Hansard, House of Lords] 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "''However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin — to give just three examples — were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom.''"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4255106.stm] BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response] BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1454208.stm] BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela] BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman"
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| − | Sometimes states that are close allies, for reasons of history, culture and politics, can disagree over whether members of a certain organization are terrorists. For example for many years some branches of the United States government refused to label members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) as terrorists, while it was using methods against one of the United States' closest allies (Britain) that Britain branded as terrorist attacks. This was highlighted by the [[Quinn v. Robinson]] case.<ref>[http://www.law.syr.edu/faculty/arzt/icl/quinn.pdf Quinn v. Robinson (pdf), 783 F2d. 776 (9th Cir. 1986)](PDF), web site of the [[Syracuse University College of Law]], Page 17, [http://www.law.du.edu/ilj/online_issues_folder/mccabe.final.4.26.03.pdf] NORTHERN IRELAND: TP , T , S 11] [[Queen's University Belfast]] School of Law
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| − | Many times the term "terrorism" and "[[extremism]]" are interchangeably used. However, there is a significant difference between the two. Terrorism essentially threat or act of physical [[violence]]. Extremism involves using non-physical instruments to mobilise minds to achieve political or ideological ends. For instance, [[Al Qaeda]] is involved in terrorism. The [[Iranian revolution]] of 1979 is a case of extremism. A global research report [http://www.strategicforesight.com/AnInclusiveWorld.pdf An Inclusive World (2007)] asserts that extremism poses a more serious threat than terrorism in the decades to come.
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| − | For these and other reasons, media outlets wishing to preserve a reputation for impartiality are extremely careful in their use of the term."GUSG"[http://www.guardian.co.uk/styleguide/page/0,5817,184833,00.html] Guardian Unlimited style guide [http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/assets/advice/guidanceontheuseoflanguagewhenreportingterrorism.doc] editorial guidelines on the use of language when reporting terrorism
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| − | ==Types of terrorism==
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| − | In the spring of 1975, the [[National Institute of Justice|Law Enforcement Assistant Administration]] in the [[United States]] formed the National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. One of the five volumes that the committee was entitled ''Disorders and Terrorism'', produced by the Task Force on Disorders and Terrorism under the direction H.H.A. Cooper, Director of the Task Force staff.<ref>Disorders and Terrorism, National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals (Washington D.C.:1976)</ref>
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| − | The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.
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| − | * '''[[Civil disorder|Civil Disorders]]''' – A form of collective violence interfering with the [[peace]], [[security]], and normal functioning of the community.
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| − | * '''Political Terrorism''' – [[Violence|Violent]] criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate [[fear]] in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
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| − | * '''Non-Political Terrorism''' – Terrorism that is not aimed at [[Politics|political]] purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain high degree of fear for [[Coercion|coercive]] purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
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| − | * '''Quasi-Terrorism''' – The activities incidental to the commission of [[crime]]s of [[violence]] that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate [[victim]] as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction. For example, the fleeing [[felon]] who takes [[hostage]]s is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
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| − | * '''Limited Political Terrorism''' – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a [[revolutionary]] approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for [[Ideology|ideological]] or [[Politics|political]] motives but which are not part of a concerted [[Strategic campaign|campaign]] to capture control of the [[State]].
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| − | * '''Official or State Terrorism''' – referring to nations whose rule is based upon [[fear]] and [[oppression]] that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.”
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| − | In an analysis prepared for U.S. Intelligence Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press,2002 four typologies are mentioned.
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| − | * Nationalist-Separatist
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| − | * Religious Fundamentalist
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| − | * New Religious and
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| − | * Social Revolutionary
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| − | ==Democracy and domestic terrorism==
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| − | The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is complex. Research shows that such terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom and that the nations with the least terrorism are the most democratic nations.[http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html] Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives, [http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf][www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html], Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives[http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~.aabadie.academic.ksg/povterr.pdf] Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism, [http://titan.iwu.edu/~econ/uer/articles/kevin_goldstein.pdf], Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism
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| − | However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy- a state with a considerable degree of political freedom. The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 80s and 90s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1-19.
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| − | Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include [[ETA]] in Spain under [[Francisco Franco]], the [[Shining Path]] in Peru under [[Alberto Fujimori]], the [[Kurdistan Workers Party]] when [[Turkey]] was ruled by military leaders and the [[African National Congress|ANC]] in [[South Africa]]. Democracies such as the [[United States]], [[Israel]], and the [[Philippines]] also have experienced domestic terrorism.
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| − | While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a perceived dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties. This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state. shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp467.
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| − | == Perpetrators ==
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| − | Acts of terrorism can be carried out by individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive [[Covert cell|cells]], highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as [[9/11]], the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|London underground bombing]], and the [[2002 Bali bombing]] were planned and carried out by a close clique, comprised of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient [[Telecommunications]] to succeed where others had failed. <ref>Sageman, Mark. 2004. "Social Networks and the Jihad". Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Ch. 5 pp. 166-167
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| − | Over the years, many people have attempted to come up with a [[terrorist profile]] to attempt to explain these individuals' actions through their psychology and social circumstances. Others, like Roderick Hindery, have sought to discern profiles in the propaganda tactics used by terrorists.
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| − | === State sponsors ===
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| − | A state can sponsor terrorism by funding a terrorist organization, harboring terrorism, and also using state resources, such as the military, to directly perform acts of terrorism. Opinions as to which acts of violence by states consist of state-sponsored terrorism or not vary widely. When states provide funding for groups considered by some to be terrorist, they rarely acknowledge them as such.
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| − | ==Tactics==
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| − | Terrorist attacks are often targeted to maximize fear and publicity. They usually use [[explosives]] or [[poison]], but there is also concern about terrorist attacks using [[weapons of mass destruction]]. Terrorist organizations usually methodically plan attacks in advance, and may train participants, plant "undercover" agents, and raise money from supporters or through [[organized crime]]. Communication may occur through modern [[telecommunications]], or through old-fashioned methods such as [[courier]]s.
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| − | ==Causes==
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| − | The context in which terrorist tactics are used is often a large-scale, unresolved political [[conflict]].
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| − | The type of conflict varies widely; historical examples include: | |
| − | * [[Secession]] of a territory to form a new sovereign state
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| − | * Dominance of territory or resources by various [[ethnic groups]]
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| − | * Imposition of a particular form of government, such as [[democracy]], [[theocracy]], or [[anarchy]]
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| − | * Economic deprivation of a population
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| − | * Opposition to a domestic government or occupying army
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| − | Terrorism is a form of [[asymmetric warfare]], and is more common when direct [[conventional warfare]] either cannot be (due to differentials in available forces) or is not being used to resolve the underlying conflict.
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| − | In some cases, the rationale for a terrorist attack may be uncertain (as in the many attacks for which no group or individual claims responsibility) or unrelated to any large-scale social conflict (such as the [[Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway]] by [[Aum Shinrikyo]]).
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| − | A [[global]] research report [http://www.strategicforesight.com/AnInclusiveWorld.pdf An Inclusive World] prepared by an [[international]] team of researchers from all continents has analysed causes of present day terrorism. It has reached the conclusions that terrorism all over the world functions like an economic [[market]]. There is demand for [[terrorists]] placed by [[greed]] or grievances. [[Supply]] is driven by relative deprivation resulting in triple deficits - developmental [[deficit]], democratic deficit and dignity deficit. Acts of terror take place at the point of intersection between supply and demand. Those placing the demand use [[religion]] and other denominators as vehicles to establish links with those on the supply side. This pattern can be observed in all situations ranging from [[Colombia]] to [[Colombo]] and the [[Philippines]] to the [[Palestine]].
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| − | ==Responses to terrorism==
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| − | Responses to terrorism are broad in scope. They can include re-alignments of the [[political spectrum]] and reassessments of [[value system|fundamental values]]. The term '''counter-terrorism''' has a narrower connotation, implying that it is directed at terrorist actors.
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| − | Specific types of responses include:
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| − | * Targeted laws, criminal procedures, deportations, and enhanced police powers
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| − | * Target hardening, such as locking doors or adding traffic barriers
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| − | * Pre-emptive or reactive military action
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| − | * Increased intelligence and surveillance activities
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| − | * Pre-emptive humanitarian activities
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| − | * More permissive interrogation and detention policies
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| − | * Official acceptance of torture as a valid tool
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| − | == Mass media ==
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| − | Media exposure may be a primary goal of those carrying out terrorism, to expose issues that would otherwise be ignored by the media. Some consider this to be manipulation and exploitation of the media.<ref>The Media and Terrorism: A Reassessment [[Paul Wilkinson]]. Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol.9, No.2 (Summer 1997), pp.51-64 Published by Frank Cass, London. </ref> Others consider terrorism itself to be a symptom of a highly controlled mass media, which does not otherwise give voice to alternative viewpoints, a view expressed by [[Paul Watson]] who has stated that controlled media is responsible for terrorism, because "you cannot get your information across any other way". Paul Watson's organization [[Sea Shepherd]] has itself been branded "[[eco-terrorist]]", although it claims to have not caused any casualties.
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| − | The mass media will often censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organisations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media.
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| − | "There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related."[[William Gibson]].[http://www.williamgibsonbooks.com/blog/2004_10_01_archive.asp his blog William Gibson's blog], October 31, 2004, retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>}}
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| − | The [[Weatherman (organization)|Weather Underground]] was a militant US organization which, while causing no casualties, performed terrorist acts to bring media attention to various world political issues. Many of the issues were given brief mentions by news services only in relation to the terrorist acts.
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| − | == History ==
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| − | | |
| − | The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to 1795 when it was used to describe the actions of the [[Jacobin Club]] in their rule of post-Revolutionary France, the so-called "[[Reign of Terror]]".
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| − | * [[Hans Köchler]] (ed.), ''Terrorism and National Liberation. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Question of Terrorism.'' Frankfurt a. M./Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1988, ISBN 3-8204-1217-4
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| − | * [[Hans Köchler]], ''Manila Lectures 2002. Terrorism and the Quest for a Just World Order''. Quezon City (Manila): FSJ Book World, 2002, ISBN 0-9710791-2-9
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| − | * Walter Laqueur, ''No End to War - Terrorism in the 21st century'', New York, 2003, ISBN 0-8264-1435-4
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| − | * [http://www.terrorfileonline.org/en/index.php/Main_Page ''U.S. Terrorism in the Americas''] an Encyclopedia "on violence promoted, supported and carried out by both the U.S. government and its servants in Latin America
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| − | * Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. ''Terrorism : essential primary sources.'' Thomson Gale, 2006. ISBN 9781414406213 Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms LC Control Number: 2005024002.
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| − | * [[Lyal Sunga|Lyal S. Sunga]], <cite> US Anti-Terrorism Policy and Asia’s Options, in Johannen, Smith and Gomez, (eds.) [[September 11]] & Political Freedoms: Asian Perspectives (Select) (2002) 242-264.</cite>
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| − | ===UN conventions===
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| − | * United Nations: [http://untreaty.un.org/English/Terrorism.asp Conventions on Terrorism]
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| − | * [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]]: [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_conventions.html Conventions against terrorism] "There are 12 major multilateral conventions and protocols related to states' responsibilities for combating terrorism. But many states are not yet party to these legal instruments, or are not yet implementing them."
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| − | ===News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism===
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| − | * [http://osint.isria.com A reliable and daily updated Open Sources Center that includes a "Terrorism" section.] by ISRIA.
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| − | * [http://diplomacymonitor.com/stu/dm.nsf/issued?openform&cat=Terrorism Diplomacy Monitor - Terrorism]
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| − | * [http://www.jihadmonitor.org/ Jihad Monitor]
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| − | ===Papers and articles on global terrorism===
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| − | * Audrey Kurth Cronin, "Behind the Curve: Globalization and International Terrorism," ''International Security'', Vol. 27, No. 3 (Winter 2002/03), pp. 30-58.
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| − | * Stathis N. Kalyvas, [http://research.yale.edu/stathis/files/Paradox.pdf ''The Paradox of Terrorism in Civil Wars''] (2004) in ''Journal of Ethics'' 8:1, 97-138.
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| − | * [[Hans Köchler]], [http://hanskoechler.com/koechler-un-law-terrorism.pdf The United Nations, the International Rule of Law and Terrorism]. Supreme Court of the Philippines, Centenary Lecture (2002)
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| − | * [[Hans Köchler]], [http://i-p-o.org/koechler-terrorism-collective-security.htm The United Nations and International Terrorism. Challenges to Collective Security] (2002)
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| − | * [http://www.tkb.org/ MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base]
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| − | * [http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/global-war-on-terrorism/ Global War on Terrorism / Strategic Studies Institute]
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| − | * [http://www.terrorism.com Terrorism Research Center] - Terrorism research site started in 1996.
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| − | * [http://terrorfinance.org Terror Finance Blog] - Multi-expert website dealing with terror finance issues.
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| − | * [http://www.terrorism-research.com/ Terrorism Research] - International Terrorism and Security Research
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| − | * [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0502014/ Scale invariance in global terrorism]
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| − | * [http://www.debriefed.org/ Security News Line: Global Terrorism and Counter-terrorism www.debriefed.org]
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| − | * [http://statbel.fgov.be/studies/thesis_nl.asp?n=424 The Evolution of Terrorism in 2005. A statistical assessment] An article by Rik Coolsaet and Teun Van de Voorde, University of Ghent
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| − | * [http://www.polyarchy.org/essays/english/terrorism.html Terrorism/Anti-terrorism] - An analysis on the causes and uses of terrorism
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| − | * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front] PBS "Frontline" 2005.
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| − | * [http://www.teachingterror.com/ ''Teaching Terrorism and Counterterrorism'' with lesson plans, bibliographies, resources; from US Military Academy]
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| − | * [http://www.analyzingeu.eu/konrad/2007/european-union-security-after-september-2001/ European Union’s Security With Regard to the International Situation After September 2001] - Special Report on Terrorism in the European Union on 'Analyzing EU'
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| − | * [http://www.germany.info/relaunch/info/publications/infocus/terror/index.html Germany's contribution to the fight against global terrorism]
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| − | ===Papers and articles on terrorism and the United States===
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| − | * [http://www.aynrand.org/site/News2?page=NewsArticle&id=5207&news_iv_ctrl=1021 Leonard Peikoff on Terrorism] This article was published in the New York Times on October 2, 2001.
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| − | * Ivan Arreguín-Toft, "Tunnel at the End of the Light: A Critique of U.S. Counter-terrorist Grand Strategy,"''Cambridge Review of International Affairs'', Vol. 15, No. 3 (2002), pp. 549-563.
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| − | * [http://web1.foreignpolicy.com/issue_julyaug_2006/TI-index/index.html The Terrorism Index] - Terrorism "scorecard" from ''Foreign Policy Magazine'' and the Center for American Progress
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| − | * [http://lightonthings.blogspot.com#fight The realiy show: the Watch, the Fight]
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| − | * [http://www.rand.org/media/experts/policy_areas/homeland_security_and_terrorism/index.html RAND Terrorism Experts Guide]
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| − | * [http://www.rewardsforjustice.net Most Wanted Terrorists]- Rewards for Justice
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| − | * [http://www.lawandterrorism.com Law, Terrorism and Homeland Security]. A collection of articles compiled by Greg McNeal, Fellow in Terrorism and Homeland Security at the Institute for Global Security Law and Policy.
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| − | * [http://ssrn.com/abstract=880076 "The Security Constitution," UCLA Law Review, Vol. 53, No. 29, 2005]
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| − | * [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/enemywithin] The Enemy Within, PBS Frontline October 2006.
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| − | | |
| − | ===Papers and articles on terrorism and Israel===
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| − | * Ariel Merari, "Terrorism as a Strategy in Insurgency," ''Terrorism and Political Violence'', Vol. 5, No. 4 (Winter 1993), pp. 213-251.
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| − | * [http://www.ynetnews.com/home/0,7340,L-4176,00.html Israel Global Terror desk]
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| − | * [http://www.education.gov.il/children/index.html Target: Israeli Children]
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| − | * *[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Victims+of+Palestinian+Violence+and+Terrorism+sinc.htm Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000]
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| − | ===Other===
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| − | * [http://www.swemorph.com/pdf/inmm-r2.pdf Nuclear Facilities and Sabotage: Using Morphological Analysis as a Scenario and Strategy Development Laboratory] (PDF)
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| − | * [http://www.paradisepoisoned.com Paradise Poisoned: Learning About Conflict, Development and Terrorism from Sri Lanka's Civil Wars] by [[John Richardson (professor and author)|John Richardson]]
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| − | * [http://ontology.teknowledge.com Ontologies of ''Weapons of Mass Destruction'' and ''Terrorism'']
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| − | * The '''[[Supreme Court of India]]''' adopted [[Alex P. Schmid|Alex P. Schmid's]] definition of terrorism in a 2003 ruling (Madan Singh vs. State of Bihar), "defin[ing] acts of terrorism veritably as 'peacetime equivalents of war crimes.'"[http://www.sacw.net/hrights/judgementjehanabad.doc]
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| − | * [[Jack Goody]] ''[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a713717641~db=all What is a terrorist?]'' Published in: journal History and Anthropology, Volume 13, Issue 2 2002 , pages 139 - 142 DOI: 10.1080/0275720022000001219
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| − | * '''[[Alex P. Schmid|Schmid]] and Jongman (1988)''': "Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-)clandestine individual, group, or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal, or political reasons, whereby — in contrast to assassination — the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims are violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat- and violence-based communication processes between terrorist (organization), (imperiled) victims, and main targets are use to manipulate the main target (audience(s), turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought". "Schmid Terrorism Definition"[http://www.unodc.org/unodc/terrorism_definitions.html Academic Consensus Definition of "Terrorism," Schmid 1988, United Nations website]. '''For more detailed information, see:''' Schmid, Jongman et al. ''Political terrorism: a new guide to actors, authors, concepts, data bases, theories, and literature''. Amsterdam: North Holland, Transaction Books, 1988.
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