Difference between revisions of "Terrorism"

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'''Terrorism''' in the modern sense See the is [[violence]] or other harmful acts committed (or threatened) against civilians for political or other ideological goals."The divergent assessments of the same evidence on such an important issue shocks a leading terrorism researcher. 'The notion of terrorism is fairly straightforward — it is ideologically or politically motivated violence directed against civilian targets.'" said Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University." Humphreys, Adrian. [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=a64f73d2-f672-4bd0-abb3-2584029db496] "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'"], ''[[National Post]],'' [[January 17]], [[2006]]. Most [[Definition of terrorism|definitions of terrorism]] include only those acts which are intended to create fear or "terror", are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or utterly disregard the safety of [[non-combatants]]. Many definitions also include only acts of [[unlawful]] violence.
 
'''Terrorism''' in the modern sense See the is [[violence]] or other harmful acts committed (or threatened) against civilians for political or other ideological goals."The divergent assessments of the same evidence on such an important issue shocks a leading terrorism researcher. 'The notion of terrorism is fairly straightforward — it is ideologically or politically motivated violence directed against civilian targets.'" said Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University." Humphreys, Adrian. [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=a64f73d2-f672-4bd0-abb3-2584029db496] "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'"], ''[[National Post]],'' [[January 17]], [[2006]]. Most [[Definition of terrorism|definitions of terrorism]] include only those acts which are intended to create fear or "terror", are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or utterly disregard the safety of [[non-combatants]]. Many definitions also include only acts of [[unlawful]] violence.
  
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The word "terrorism" was first{{fact|date=August 2007}} used in reference to the [[Reign of Terror]] during the [[French Revolution]]. A 1988 study by the [[United States Army]] found that more than one hundred definitions of the word exist and have been used. Dr. Jeffrey Record, [http://carlisle-www.army.mil/ssi/pubs/2003/bounding/bounding.pdf Bounding the Global War on Terrorism](PDF)
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The word "terrorism" was first used in reference to the [[Reign of Terror]] during the [[French Revolution]]. A 1988 study by the [[United States Army]] found that more than one hundred definitions of the word exist and have been used. Dr. Jeffrey Record, [http://carlisle-www.army.mil/ssi/pubs/2003/bounding/bounding.pdf Bounding the Global War on Terrorism](PDF)
  
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Terrorism is a crime in all countries where such acts occur{{fact|date=August 2007}}, and is defined by statute — see ''[[Definition of terrorism]]'' for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of [[Right to resist occupation|legitimate use of violence]] by civilians against an invader in an [[Occupied territories|occupied country]] and would, thus, label all [[resistance movement]]s as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the distinction is a [[Politics|political]] judgment.Ali Khan, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935347 A LEGAL THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM] Published in 19 Connecticut Law Review 945-972(1987)
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Terrorism is a crime in all countries where such acts occur, and is defined by statute — see ''[[Definition of terrorism]]'' for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of [[Right to resist occupation|legitimate use of violence]] by civilians against an invader in an [[Occupied territories|occupied country]] and would, thus, label all [[resistance movement]]s as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the distinction is a [[Politics|political]] judgment.Ali Khan, [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=935347 A LEGAL THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM] Published in 19 Connecticut Law Review 945-972(1987)
  
 
In November 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as any act: "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act." In a [http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73] commentary issued by the UN] it states that ''The second part of the report [[titled "Larger Freedom." by Kofi Annan, Secretary General, United Nations at the Security Council Meeting on [[17 March]], [[2005]]], entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism - an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community - as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."''
 
In November 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as any act: "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act." In a [http://www.un.org/unifeed/script.asp?scriptId=73] commentary issued by the UN] it states that ''The second part of the report [[titled "Larger Freedom." by Kofi Annan, Secretary General, United Nations at the Security Council Meeting on [[17 March]], [[2005]]], entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism - an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community - as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."''
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on one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, `'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization `terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism. Hoffman, Bruce "''Inside Terrorism''" Columbia University Press 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Page 32. See review in The [[New York Times]][http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html Inside Terrorism] [http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:RPT6zpTtE08J:www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html+%22everyone+agrees:+terrorism+is+a+pejorative+term%22&hl=en&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=1&lr=lang_en Google cached copy]
 
on one point, at least, everyone agrees: terrorism is a pejorative term. It is a word with intrinsically negative connotations that is generally applied to one's enemies and opponents, or to those with whom one disagrees and would otherwise prefer to ignore. 'What is called terrorism,' Brian Jenkins has written, `'thus seems to depend on one's point of view. Use of the term implies a moral judgment; and if one party can successfully attach the label terrorist to its opponent, then it has indirectly persuaded others to adopt its moral viewpoint.' Hence the decision to call someone or label some organization `terrorist' becomes almost unavoidably subjective, depending largely on whether one sympathizes with or opposes the person/group/cause concerned. If one identifies with the victim of the violence, for example, then the act is terrorism. If, however, one identifies with the perpetrator, the violent act is regarded in a more sympathetic, if not positive (or, at the worst, an ambivalent) light; and it is not terrorism. Hoffman, Bruce "''Inside Terrorism''" Columbia University Press 1998 ISBN 0-231-11468-0. Page 32. See review in The [[New York Times]][http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html Inside Terrorism] [http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:RPT6zpTtE08J:www.nytimes.com/books/first/h/hoffman-terrorism.html+%22everyone+agrees:+terrorism+is+a+pejorative+term%22&hl=en&gl=uk&ct=clnk&cd=1&lr=lang_en Google cached copy]
  
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The difference between the words "terrorist" or "terrorism" and the terms above can be summed up by the [[aphorism]], "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter." This is exemplified when a group that uses [[irregular military]] methods is an ally of a [[State]] against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the State and starts to use the same methods against its former ally. During World War II the [[Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army]] was allied with the British, but during the [[Malayan Emergency]], members of its successor, the [[Malayan Races Liberation Army]], were branded terrorists by the British.[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371060/Malayan-People's-Anti-Japanese-Army Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army] Britannica Concis, Dr Chris Clark ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948]'', [[16 June]], [[2003]] More recently, [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in the American administration frequently called the [[mujaheddin#Afghan Mujahideen|Afghan Mujahideen]] freedom fighters during [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|their war]] against the [[Soviet Union]],[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAreagan.htm Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference] [[8 March]], 1985. On the [[Spartacus Educational]] yet twenty years later when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks are labelled terrorism by [[George W. Bush]].[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020128-13.html] President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman][http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060209-2.html] President Discusses Progress in War on Terror to National Guard] [[White House]] web site [[February 9]], [[2006]] Groups accused of terrorism usually prefer terms that reflect legitimate military or ideological action.Sudha Ramachandran ''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FK12Ak01.html] Death behind the wheel in Iraq]'' [[Asian Times]], [[November 12]] [[2004]], "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..." Alex Perry [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1109554,00.html] How Much to Tip the Terrorist?] [[Time Magazine]], [[September 26]], [[2005]]. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dtra/terrorism_concepts.doc TERRORISM: CONCEPTS, CAUSES, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION] [[George Mason University]] [[Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution]], Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003 Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's [[Carleton University]], defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and goes on to say: {{cquote|"There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly leading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless." Humphreys, Adrian. [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html?id=a64f73d2-f672-4bd0-abb3-2584029db496 "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'"], ''[[National Post]]'', [[January 17]], [[2006]].
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The difference between the words "terrorist" or "terrorism" and the terms above can be summed up by the [[aphorism]], "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter." This is exemplified when a group that uses [[irregular military]] methods is an ally of a [[State]] against a mutual enemy, but later falls out with the State and starts to use the same methods against its former ally. During World War II the [[Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army]] was allied with the British, but during the [[Malayan Emergency]], members of its successor, the [[Malayan Races Liberation Army]], were branded terrorists by the British.[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9371060/Malayan-People's-Anti-Japanese-Army Malayan People's Anti-Japanese Army] Britannica Concis, Dr Chris Clark ''[http://www.awm.gov.au/atwar/remembering1942/malaya/index.htm Malayan Emergency, 16 June 1948]'', [[16 June]], [[2003]] More recently, [[Ronald Reagan]] and others in the American administration frequently called the [[mujaheddin#Afghan Mujahideen|Afghan Mujahideen]] freedom fighters during [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|their war]] against the [[Soviet Union]],[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAreagan.htm Ronald Reagan, speech to National Conservative Political Action Conference] [[8 March]], 1985. On the [[Spartacus Educational]] yet twenty years later when a new generation of Afghan men are fighting against what they perceive to be a regime installed by foreign powers, their attacks are labelled terrorism by [[George W. Bush]].[http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/01/20020128-13.html] President Meets with Afghan Interim Authority Chairman][http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2006/02/20060209-2.html] President Discusses Progress in War on Terror to National Guard] [[White House]] web site [[February 9]], [[2006]] Groups accused of terrorism usually prefer terms that reflect legitimate military or ideological action.Sudha Ramachandran ''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/FK12Ak01.html] Death behind the wheel in Iraq]'' [[Asian Times]], [[November 12]] [[2004]], "Insurgent groups that use suicide attacks therefore do not like their attacks to be described as suicide terrorism. They prefer to use terms like "martyrdom ..." Alex Perry [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1109554,00.html] How Much to Tip the Terrorist?] [[Time Magazine]], [[September 26]], [[2005]]. "The Tamil Tigers would dispute that tag, of course. Like other guerrillas and suicide bombers, they prefer the term “freedom fighters.”[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/dtra/terrorism_concepts.doc TERRORISM: CONCEPTS, CAUSES, AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION] [[George Mason University]] [[Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution]], Printed by the Defense Threat Reduction Agency, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, January 2003 Leading terrorism researcher Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's [[Carleton University]], defines "terrorist acts" as attacks against civilians for political or other ideological goals, and goes on to say:  
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<blockquote>"There is the famous statement: 'One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.' But that is grossly leading. It assesses the validity of the cause when terrorism is an act. One can have a perfectly beautiful cause and yet if one commits terrorist acts, it is terrorism regardless." Humphreys, Adrian".</blockquote> [http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/news/story.html]
  
 
Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called terrorist by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called statesmen by similar organizations. Two examples are [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureates [[Menachem Begin]] and [[Nelson Mandela]]. Theodore P. Seto ''[http://llr.lls.edu/volumes/v35-issue4/seto.pdf] The Morality of Terrorism]'' Includes a list in the [[Times]] published on [[July 23]] [[1946]] which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/israel_at_50/profiles/81305.stm] BBC News: PROFILES: Menachem Begin] BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence." Eqbal Ahmad ''"[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-1328039/Straight-talk-on-terrorism.html Straight talk on terrorism]"'' [[Monthly Review]], January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4583684.stmBBC NEWS: World: Middle East: Sharon's legacy does not include peace] BBC website "Ariel Sharon will be compared to Menachem Begin, another warrior turned statesman, who gave up the Sinai and made peace with Egypt."Lord Desai [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo980903/text/80903-04.htm] Hansard, House of Lords] 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "''However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin &mdash; to give just three examples &mdash; were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom.''"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4255106.stm] BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response] BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1454208.stm] BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela] BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman"
 
Some groups, when involved in a "liberation" struggle, have been called terrorist by the Western governments or media. Later, these same persons, as leaders of the liberated nations, are called statesmen by similar organizations. Two examples are [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureates [[Menachem Begin]] and [[Nelson Mandela]]. Theodore P. Seto ''[http://llr.lls.edu/volumes/v35-issue4/seto.pdf] The Morality of Terrorism]'' Includes a list in the [[Times]] published on [[July 23]] [[1946]] which were described as Jewish terrorist actions, including those launched by Irgun which Begin was a leading member[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/israel_at_50/profiles/81305.stm] BBC News: PROFILES: Menachem Begin] BBC website "Under Begin's command, the underground terrorist group Irgun carried out numerous acts of violence." Eqbal Ahmad ''"[http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-1328039/Straight-talk-on-terrorism.html Straight talk on terrorism]"'' [[Monthly Review]], January, 2002. "including Menachem Begin, appearing in "Wanted" posters saying, "Terrorists, reward this much." The highest reward I have seen offered was 100,000 British pounds for the head of Menachem Begin"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4583684.stmBBC NEWS: World: Middle East: Sharon's legacy does not include peace] BBC website "Ariel Sharon will be compared to Menachem Begin, another warrior turned statesman, who gave up the Sinai and made peace with Egypt."Lord Desai [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199798/ldhansrd/vo980903/text/80903-04.htm] Hansard, House of Lords] 3 September 1998 : Column 72, "''However, Jomo Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela and Menachem Begin &mdash; to give just three examples &mdash; were all denounced as terrorists but all proved to be successful political leaders of their countries and good friends of the United Kingdom.''"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4255106.stm] BBC NEWS:World: Americas: UN reforms receive mixed response] BBC website "Of all groups active in recent times, the ANC perhaps represents best the traditional dichotomous view of armed struggle. Once regarded by western governments as a terrorist group, it now forms the legitimate, elected government of South Africa, with Nelson Mandela one of the world's genuinely iconic figures."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1454208.stm] BBC NEWS: World: Africa: Profile: Nelson Mandela] BBC website "Nelson Mandela remains one of the world's most revered statesman"
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The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to 1795 when it was used to describe the actions of the [[Jacobin Club]] in their rule of post-Revolutionary France, the so-called "[[Reign of Terror]]".
 
The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to 1795 when it was used to describe the actions of the [[Jacobin Club]] in their rule of post-Revolutionary France, the so-called "[[Reign of Terror]]".
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[[Image:Terrorincidents2001atlas.jpg|thumb|right|"International Terrorist Incidents, 2001" by the US [[Department of State]]]]
 
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==See also==
 
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* [[Agent provocateur]]
 
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* [[Colombian armed conflict (1960s – present)]]
 
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* [[Conspiracy theory]]
 
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* [[Eco-terrorism]]
 
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* [[False flag]] operations
 
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* [[Hate crime]]
 
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* [[Hate group]]
 
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* [[Hirabah]]
 
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* [[Indoctrination]]
 
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* [[List of terrorist incidents]]
 
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* [[List of terrorist organisations]]
 
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* [[Lone wolf (terrorism)|Lone wolf terrorism]]
 
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* [[Propaganda]]
 
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* [[Religious terrorism]]
 
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* [[State Terrorism]]
 
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* [[State-sponsored terrorism]]
 
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* [[Strategy of tension]]
 
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* [[Ten Threats]] identified by the [[United Nations]]
 
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* [[Terrorism insurance]]
 
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* [[Terrorist Screening Center]]
 
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* [[Unconventional warfare]]
 
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* [[Hans Köchler]] (ed.), ''Terrorism and National Liberation. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Question of Terrorism.'' Frankfurt a. M./Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1988, ISBN 3-8204-1217-4
 
* [[Hans Köchler]] (ed.), ''Terrorism and National Liberation. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Question of Terrorism.'' Frankfurt a. M./Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1988, ISBN 3-8204-1217-4
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[[Category: General Reference]]
 
[[Category: General Reference]]
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[[Category: History]]
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[[Category: Political Science]]

Revision as of 00:48, 6 April 2009

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Terrorism in the modern sense See the is violence or other harmful acts committed (or threatened) against civilians for political or other ideological goals."The divergent assessments of the same evidence on such an important issue shocks a leading terrorism researcher. 'The notion of terrorism is fairly straightforward — it is ideologically or politically motivated violence directed against civilian targets.'" said Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University." Humphreys, Adrian. [1] "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'"], National Post, January 17, 2006. Most definitions of terrorism include only those acts which are intended to create fear or "terror", are perpetrated for an ideological goal (as opposed to a lone attack), and deliberately target or utterly disregard the safety of non-combatants. Many definitions also include only acts of unlawful violence.

As a form of unconventional warfare, terrorism is sometimes used when attempting to force political change by convincing a government or population to agree to demands to avoid future harm or fear of harm, destabilizing an existing government, motivating a disgruntled population to join an rebellion or uprising, escalating a conflict in the hopes of disrupting the status quo, expressing a grievance, or drawing attention to a cause.

Terrorism has been used by a broad array of political organizations in furthering their objectives; both right-wing and left-wing political parties, nationalistic, and religious groups, revolutionaries and ruling governments.[2] Terrorism, Encyclopædia Britannica, The presence of non-state actors in widespread armed conflict has created controversy regarding the application of the laws of war.

An International Round Table on Constructing Peace, Deconstructing Terror (2004) hosted by Strategic Foresight Group recommended that a distinction should be made between terrorism and acts of terror. While acts of terror are criminal acts as per the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1373 and domestic jurisprudence of almost all countries in the world, terrorism refers to a phenomenon including the actual acts, the perpetrators of acts of terror themselves and their motives. There is disagreement on definitions of terrorism. However, there is an intellectual consensus globally, that acts of terror should not be accepted under any circumstances. This is reflected in all important conventions including the United Nations counter terrorism strategy, the decisions of the Madrid Conference on terrorism, the Strategic Foresight Group and ALDE Round Tables at the European Parliament.

Official definitions

The word "terrorism" was first used in reference to the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution. A 1988 study by the United States Army found that more than one hundred definitions of the word exist and have been used. Dr. Jeffrey Record, Bounding the Global War on Terrorism(PDF)

Terrorism is a crime in all countries where such acts occur, and is defined by statute — see Definition of terrorism for particular definitions. Common principles among legal definitions of terrorism provide an emerging consensus as to meaning and also foster cooperation between law enforcement personnel in different countries. Among these definitions there are several that do not recognize the possibility of legitimate use of violence by civilians against an invader in an occupied country and would, thus, label all resistance movements as terrorist groups. Others make a distinction between lawful and unlawful use of violence. Ultimately, the distinction is a political judgment.Ali Khan, A LEGAL THEORY OF INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM Published in 19 Connecticut Law Review 945-972(1987)

In November 2004, a UN panel described terrorism as any act: "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act." In a [3] commentary issued by the UN] it states that The second part of the report [[titled "Larger Freedom." by Kofi Annan, Secretary General, United Nations at the Security Council Meeting on 17 March, 2005], entitled "Freedom from Fear backs the definition of terrorism - an issue so divisive agreement on it has long eluded the world community - as any action "intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organization to do or abstain from doing any act."

Key criteria

Official definitions determine counter-terrorism policy and are often developed to serve it. Most government definitions outline the following key criteria: target, objective, motive, perpetrator, and legitimacy or legality of the act. Terrorism is also often recognizable by a following statement from the perpetrators.

Violence According to Walter Laqueur of the Center for Strategic and International Studies, "the only general characteristic of terrorism generally agreed upon is that terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence". However, the criterion of violence alone does not produce a useful definition, as it includes many acts not usually considered terrorism: war, riot, organized crime, or even a simple assault. Property destruction that does not endanger life is not usually considered a violent crime, but some have described property destruction by the Earth Liberation Front and Animal Liberation Front as terrorism.

Psychological impact and fear The attack was carried out in such a way as to maximize the severity and length of the psychological impact. Each act of terrorism is a “performance,” a product of internal logic, devised to have an impact on many large audiences. Terrorists also attack national symbols to show their power and to shake the foundation of the country or society they are opposed to. This may negatively affect a government's legitimacy, while increasing the legitimacy of the given terrorist organization and/or ideology behind a terrorist act. Juergensmeyer, Mark. 2000. Terror in the Mind of God. University of California Press. Ch. 7 pp. 125-135 </ref>

Perpetrated for a Political Goal – Something all terrorist attacks have in common is their perpetration for a political purpose. Terrorism is a political tactic, not unlike letter writing or protesting, that is used by activists when they believe no other means will effect the kind of change they desire. The change is desired so badly that failure is seen as a worse outcome than the deaths of civilians. This is often where the interrelationship between terrorism and religion occurs. When a political struggle is integrated into the framework of a religious or "cosmic"Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag The Task Force classified terrorism into six categories.

  • Civil Disorders – A form of collective violence interfering with the peace, security, and normal functioning of the community.
  • Political Terrorism – Violent criminal behaviour designed primarily to generate fear in the community, or substantial segment of it, for political purposes.
  • Non-Political Terrorism – Terrorism that is not aimed at political purposes but which exhibits “conscious design to create and maintain high degree of fear for coercive purposes, but the end is individual or collective gain rather than the achievement of a political objective.”
  • Quasi-Terrorism – The activities incidental to the commission of crimes of violence that are similar in form and method to genuine terrorism but which nevertheless lack its essential ingredient. It is not the main purpose of the quasi-terrorists to induce terror in the immediate victim as in the case of genuine terrorism, but the quasi-terrorist uses the modalities and techniques of the genuine terrorist and produces similar consequences and reaction. For example, the fleeing felon who takes hostages is a quasi-terrorist, whose methods are similar to those of the genuine terrorist but whose purposes are quite different.
  • Limited Political Terrorism – Genuine political terrorism is characterized by a revolutionary approach; limited political terrorism refers to “acts of terrorism which are committed for ideological or political motives but which are not part of a concerted campaign to capture control of the State.
  • Official or State Terrorism – referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism or such proportions.”

In an analysis prepared for U.S. Intelligence Hudson, Rex A. Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why: The 1999 Government Report on Profiling Terrorists, Federal Research Division, The Lyons Press,2002 four typologies are mentioned.

  • Nationalist-Separatist
  • Religious Fundamentalist
  • New Religious and
  • Social Revolutionary

Democracy and domestic terrorism

The relationship between domestic terrorism and democracy is complex. Research shows that such terrorism is most common in nations with intermediate political freedom and that the nations with the least terrorism are the most democratic nations.[4] Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives, [5][www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/2004/11.04/05-terror.html], Freedom squelches terrorist violence: Harvard Gazette Archives[6] Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism, [7], Unemployment, Inequality and Terrorism: Another Look at the Relationship between Economics and Terrorism However, one study suggests that suicide terrorism may be an exception to this general rule. Evidence regarding this particular method of terrorism reveals that every modern suicide campaign has targeted a democracy- a state with a considerable degree of political freedom. The study suggests that concessions awarded to terrorists during the 80s and 90s for suicide attacks increased their frequency.Pape, Robert A. "The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism," American Political Science Review, 2003. 97 (3): pp. 1-19.

Some examples of "terrorism" in non-democracies include ETA in Spain under Francisco Franco, the Shining Path in Peru under Alberto Fujimori, the Kurdistan Workers Party when Turkey was ruled by military leaders and the ANC in South Africa. Democracies such as the United States, Israel, and the Philippines also have experienced domestic terrorism.

While a democratic nation espousing civil liberties may claim a sense of higher moral ground than other regimes, an act of terrorism within such a state may cause a perceived dilemma: whether to maintain its civil liberties and thus risk being perceived as ineffective in dealing with the problem; or alternatively to restrict its civil liberties and thus risk delegitimizing its claim of supporting civil liberties. This dilemma, some social theorists would conclude, may very well play into the initial plans of the acting terrorist(s); namely, to delegitimize the state. shabad, goldie and francisco jose llera ramo. "Political Violence in a Democratic State," Terrorism in Context. Ed. Martha Crenshaw. University Park: Pennsylvania State University, 1995. pp467.

Perpetrators

Acts of terrorism can be carried out by individuals, groups, or states. According to some definitions, clandestine or semi-clandestine state actors may also carry out terrorist acts outside the framework of a state of war. However, the most common image of terrorism is that it is carried out by small and secretive cells, highly motivated to serve a particular cause and many of the most deadly operations in recent times, such as 9/11, the London underground bombing, and the 2002 Bali bombing were planned and carried out by a close clique, comprised of close friends, family members and other strong social networks. These groups benefited from the free flow of information and efficient Telecommunications to succeed where others had failed. Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag Others consider terrorism itself to be a symptom of a highly controlled mass media, which does not otherwise give voice to alternative viewpoints, a view expressed by Paul Watson who has stated that controlled media is responsible for terrorism, because "you cannot get your information across any other way". Paul Watson's organization Sea Shepherd has itself been branded "eco-terrorist", although it claims to have not caused any casualties.

The mass media will often censor organizations involved in terrorism (through self-restraint or regulation) to discourage further terrorism. However, this may encourage organisations to perform more extreme acts of terrorism to be shown in the mass media.

"There is always a point at which the terrorist ceases to manipulate the media gestalt. A point at which the violence may well escalate, but beyond which the terrorist has become symptomatic of the media gestalt itself. Terrorism as we ordinarily understand it is innately media-related."William Gibson.his blog William Gibson's blog, October 31, 2004, retrieved April 26, 2007.</ref>}}

The Weather Underground was a militant US organization which, while causing no casualties, performed terrorist acts to bring media attention to various world political issues. Many of the issues were given brief mentions by news services only in relation to the terrorist acts.

History

The modern English term "terrorism" dates back to 1795 when it was used to describe the actions of the Jacobin Club in their rule of post-Revolutionary France, the so-called "Reign of Terror".

  • Hans Köchler (ed.), Terrorism and National Liberation. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Question of Terrorism. Frankfurt a. M./Bern/New York: Peter Lang, 1988, ISBN 3-8204-1217-4
  • Hans Köchler, Manila Lectures 2002. Terrorism and the Quest for a Just World Order. Quezon City (Manila): FSJ Book World, 2002, ISBN 0-9710791-2-9
  • Walter Laqueur, No End to War - Terrorism in the 21st century, New York, 2003, ISBN 0-8264-1435-4
  • U.S. Terrorism in the Americas an Encyclopedia "on violence promoted, supported and carried out by both the U.S. government and its servants in Latin America
  • Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner, eds. Terrorism : essential primary sources. Thomson Gale, 2006. ISBN 9781414406213 Library of Congress. Jefferson or Adams Bldg General or Area Studies Reading Rms LC Control Number: 2005024002.
  • Lyal S. Sunga, US Anti-Terrorism Policy and Asia’s Options, in Johannen, Smith and Gomez, (eds.) September 11 & Political Freedoms: Asian Perspectives (Select) (2002) 242-264.

UN conventions

News monitoring websites specializing on articles on terrorism

Papers and articles on global terrorism

Papers and articles on terrorism and the United States

Papers and articles on terrorism and Israel

Other

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