Changes

To many earlier Greek philosophers chance did not exist. One of the surviving fragments of Leucippus says: "Nothing occurs at random, but everything for a [[reason]] and by necessity". To the atomists the world was completely [[deterministic]]. However, Democritus also claimed that chance (automaton) caused the [[original]] [[creation]] of "the [[heaven]]ly spheres and all the worlds", i.e. that [[existence]] itself has no prior or determining cause, although everything that has happened since is deterministic.

To many earlier Greek philosophers chance did not exist. One of the surviving fragments of Leucippus says: "Nothing occurs at random, but everything for a [[reason]] and by necessity". To the atomists the world was completely [[deterministic]]. However, Democritus also claimed that chance (automaton) caused the [[original]] [[creation]] of "the [[heaven]]ly spheres and all the worlds", i.e. that [[existence]] itself has no prior or determining cause, although everything that has happened since is deterministic.

To [[Aristotle]] on the other hand, both tyche (luck) and automaton (chance) are everyday [[phenomena]]. However, for Aristotle chance events were not uncaused, they were simply the effect of the concurrence of two causal sequences. Thus a stone falling that happens to hit a tree is a chance event, although the falling of the stone and the growing of the tree are both determined events.

To [[Aristotle]] on the other hand, both tyche (luck) and automaton (chance) are everyday [[phenomena]]. However, for Aristotle chance events were not uncaused, they were simply the effect of the concurrence of two causal sequences. Thus a stone falling that happens to hit a tree is a chance event, although the falling of the stone and the growing of the tree are both determined events.

<center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Chance''''', follow [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Chance '''''this link'''''].</center>

<center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Chance''''', follow [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Chance '''''this link'''''].</center>

<center>For lessons on the related [[topic]] of '''''Determinism''''', follow [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Determinism '''''this link'''''].</center>

==Contingency==

==Contingency==

# Breathnach, A. S. (1982). "A long-term hypopigmentary effect of thorium-X on freckled skin". British Journal of Dermatology 106 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1982.tb00897.x. "The distribution of freckles seems to be entirely random, and not associated with any other obviously punctuate anatomical or physiological feature of skin.".

# Breathnach, A. S. (1982). "A long-term hypopigmentary effect of thorium-X on freckled skin". British Journal of Dermatology 106 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.1982.tb00897.x. "The distribution of freckles seems to be entirely random, and not associated with any other obviously punctuate anatomical or physiological feature of skin.".

# Donald Knuth, "Things A Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About", Pg 185, 190-191, CSLI

# Donald Knuth, "Things A Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About", Pg 185, 190-191, CSLI

# Terry Ritter, Randomness tests: a literature survey. http://www.ciphersbyritter.com/RES/RANDTEST.HTM

# Terry Ritter, Randomness tests: a literature survey. https://www.ciphersbyritter.com/RES/RANDTEST.HTM

== External links ==

== External links ==

* [http://www.quantumlab.de QuantumLab] Quantum random number generator with single photons as interactive experiment.

* [https://www.quantumlab.de QuantumLab] Quantum random number generator with single photons as interactive experiment.

* [http://www.random.org Random.org] generates random numbers using atmospheric noises.

* [https://www.random.org Random.org] generates random numbers using atmospheric noises.

* [http://www.fourmilab.ch/hotbits/ HotBits] generates random numbers from radioactive decay.

* [https://www.fourmilab.ch/hotbits/ HotBits] generates random numbers from radioactive decay.

* [http://random.irb.hr QRBG] Quantum Random Bit Generator

* [https://random.irb.hr QRBG] Quantum Random Bit Generator

* [http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/CDMTCS/chaitin/sciamer.html Chaitin: Randomness and Mathematical Proof]

* [https://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/CDMTCS/chaitin/sciamer.html Chaitin: Randomness and Mathematical Proof]

* [http://www.fourmilab.ch/random/ A Pseudorandom Number Sequence Test Program (Public Domain)]

* [https://www.fourmilab.ch/random/ A Pseudorandom Number Sequence Test Program (Public Domain)]

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-46 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Chance

* [https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-46 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Chance

* [http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy-Free-Will-Determinism.htm Philosophy: Free Will vs. Determinism]

* [https://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy-Free-Will-Determinism.htm Philosophy: Free Will vs. Determinism]

* [http://www.rahmnation.org RAHM Nation Institute]

* [https://www.rahmnation.org RAHM Nation Institute]

* [http://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline/page-1067b-text History of randomness definitions], in [[Stephen Wolfram]]'s ''[[A New Kind of Science]]''

* [https://www.wolframscience.com/nksonline/page-1067b-text History of randomness definitions], in [[Stephen Wolfram]]'s ''[[A New Kind of Science]]''

* [http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~cristian/Calude361_370.pdf Computing a Glimpse of Randomness]

* [https://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~cristian/Calude361_370.pdf Computing a Glimpse of Randomness]

[[Category: Statistics]]

[[Category: Statistics]]

[[Category: Philosophy]]

[[Category: Philosophy]]