Changes

[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]][[File:Göbekli_Tepe,_Urfa.jpg|right|frame]]

[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]][[File:Göbekli_Tepe,_Urfa.jpg|right|frame]]

'''Archaeology''', or archeology (from [[Greek]] ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia – ἀρχαῖος, arkhaios, "[[ancient]]"; and -λογία, -logia, "-logy"), is the study of human activity, primarily through the recovery and [[analysis]] of the material [[culture]] and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes [[artifacts]], [[architecture]], biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record). Because archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be considered to be both a science and a humanity, and in the United States it is thought of as a branch of [[anthropology]], although in Europe it is viewed as a separate [[discipline]].

'''Archaeology''', or archeology (from [[Greek]] ἀρχαιολογία, archaiologia – ἀρχαῖος, arkhaios, "[[ancient]]"; and -λογία, -logia, "-logy"), is the study of human activity, primarily through the recovery and [[analysis]] of the material [[culture]] and environmental data that they have left behind, which includes [[artifacts]], [[architecture]], biofacts and cultural landscapes (the archaeological record). Because archaeology employs a wide range of different procedures, it can be considered to be both a science and a humanity, and in the United States it is thought of as a branch of [[anthropology]], although in Europe it is viewed as a separate [[discipline]].

The [[discipline]] involves surveyance, excavation and eventually [[analysis]] of data collected to learn more about the [[past]]. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary [[research]]. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, [[classics]], ethnology, [[geography]], [[geology]], [[linguistics]], semiology, [[physics]], [[information science]]s, [[chemistry]], statistics, paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, and paleobotany.

The [[discipline]] involves surveyance, excavation and eventually [[analysis]] of data collected to learn more about the [[past]]. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary [[research]]. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, [[classics]], ethnology, [[geography]], [[geology]], [[linguistics]], semiology, [[physics]], [[information science]]s, [[chemistry]], statistics, paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, paleoethnobotany, and paleobotany.

Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century 19th century], and has since become a [[discipline]] practiced across the world. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_archaeology maritime archaeology], feminist archaeology and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy archaeoastronomy], and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, ranging from dealing with pseudoarchaeology to the looting of [[artifacts]] and opposition to the excavation of human remains.

Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century 19th century], and has since become a [[discipline]] practiced across the world. Since its early development, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, including [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_archaeology maritime archaeology], feminist archaeology and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy archaeoastronomy], and numerous different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological investigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, ranging from dealing with pseudoarchaeology to the looting of [[artifacts]] and opposition to the excavation of human remains.

The [[purpose]] of archaeology is to learn more about [[past]] societies and the development of the [[human]] race. Over 99% of the history of [[humanity]] has occurred within [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory prehistoric cultures], who did not make use of [[writing]], thereby not leaving written [[records]] about themselves that we can study today. Without such written sources, the only way to learn about prehistoric societies is to use archaeology. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, including the [[evolution]] of [[humanity]] during the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeolithic Palaeolithic] period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines through to the early homos in Africa and finally into [[modern]] Homo sapiens. Archaeology also sheds light on many of [[humanity]]'s technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of stone [[tools]], the discovery of metallurgy, the beginnings of [[religion]] and the creation of [[agriculture]]. Without archaeology, we would know little or nothing about the use of material culture by [[humanity]] that pre-dates [[writing]].

The [[purpose]] of archaeology is to learn more about [[past]] societies and the development of the [[human]] race. Over 99% of the history of [[humanity]] has occurred within [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory prehistoric cultures], who did not make use of [[writing]], thereby not leaving written [[records]] about themselves that we can study today. Without such written sources, the only way to learn about prehistoric societies is to use archaeology. Many important developments in human history occurred during prehistory, including the [[evolution]] of [[humanity]] during the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeolithic Palaeolithic] period, when the hominins developed from the australopithecines through to the early homos in Africa and finally into [[modern]] Homo sapiens. Archaeology also sheds light on many of [[humanity]]'s technological advances, for instance the ability to use fire, the development of stone [[tools]], the discovery of metallurgy, the beginnings of [[religion]] and the creation of [[agriculture]]. Without archaeology, we would know little or nothing about the use of material culture by [[humanity]] that pre-dates [[writing]].

However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate [[cultures]] that can be studied using archaeology but [[historic]], literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For many literate cultures, such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece Ancient Greece] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia Mesopotamia], their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the [[bureaucracy]] of [[court]] or [[temple]]. The literacy even of [[aristocrats]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of [[elites]] are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written [[records]] tend to reflect the biases, [[assumptions]], cultural [[values]] and possibly deceptions of a limited range of [[individuals]], usually a small fraction of the larger [[population]]. Hence, written [[records]] cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair [[representation]] of [[society]], though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.

However, it is not only prehistoric, pre-literate [[cultures]] that can be studied using archaeology but [[historic]], literate cultures as well, through the sub-discipline of historical archaeology. For many literate cultures, such as [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece Ancient Greece] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia Mesopotamia], their surviving records are often incomplete and biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the elite classes, such as the clergy or the [[bureaucracy]] of [[court]] or [[temple]]. The literacy even of [[aristocrats]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of [[elites]] are often quite different from the lives and interests of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into libraries and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written [[records]] tend to reflect the biases, [[assumptions]], cultural [[values]] and possibly deceptions of a limited range of [[individuals]], usually a small fraction of the larger [[population]]. Hence, written [[records]] cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record may be closer to a fair [[representation]] of [[society]], though it is subject to its own biases, such as sampling bias and differential preservation.

There is no one singular approach to [[archaeological]] [[theory]] that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century 19th century], the first approach to archaeological [[theory]] to be [[practiced]] was that of cultural-history archaeology, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the [[fact]] that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism. In the early [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_century 20th century], many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas Native Americans], Siberians, Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach, compared the [[continuity]] between the [[past]] and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960's 1960s], an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.

There is no one singular approach to [[archaeological]] [[theory]] that has been adhered to by all archaeologists. When archaeology developed in the late [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_century 19th century], the first approach to archaeological [[theory]] to be [[practiced]] was that of cultural-history archaeology, which held the goal of explaining why cultures changed and adapted rather than just highlighting the [[fact]] that they did, therefore emphasizing historical particularism. In the early [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th_century 20th century], many archaeologists who studied past societies with direct continuing links to existing ones (such as those of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas Native Americans], Siberians, Mesoamericans etc.) followed the direct historical approach, compared the [[continuity]] between the [[past]] and contemporary ethnic and cultural groups. In the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960's 1960s], an archaeological movement largely led by American archaeologists like Lewis Binford and Kent Flannery arose that rebelled against the established cultural-history archaeology. They proposed a "New Archaeology", which would be more "scientific" and "anthropological", with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as processual archaeology.

In the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980's 1980s], a new [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism postmodern] movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder, which has become known as post-processual archaeology. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasised the importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under [[debate]]. Meanwhile, another [[theory]], known as historical processualism has emerged seeking to incorporate a [[focus]] on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and [[history]].

In the [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980's 1980s], a new [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism postmodern] movement arose led by the British archaeologists Michael Shanks, Christopher Tilley, Daniel Miller, and Ian Hodder, which has become known as post-processual archaeology. It questioned processualism's appeals to scientific positivism and impartiality, and emphasised the importance of a more self-critical theoretical reflexivity. However, this approach has been criticized by processualists as lacking scientific rigor, and the validity of both processualism and post-processualism is still under [[debate]]. Meanwhile, another [[theory]], known as historical processualism has emerged seeking to incorporate a [[focus]] on process and post-processual archaeology's emphasis of reflexivity and [[history]].

Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of [[influences]], including [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought], phenomenology, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology postmodernism], agency theory, cognitive science, Structural functionalism, gender-based and Feminist archaeology, and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology Systems theory].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology]

Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of [[influences]], including [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought], phenomenology, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology postmodernism], agency theory, cognitive science, Structural functionalism, gender-based and Feminist archaeology, and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_theory_in_archaeology Systems theory].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeology]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Archaeology]]

[[Category: Archaeology]]