Changes

[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]]

[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]]

'''Architecture'''  is the [[art]] and [[science]] of [[design]]ing [[building]]s and [[structure]]s. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment: from the macrolevel of [[town planning]], [[urban design]], and [[landscape architecture]] to the microlevel of construction details and [[furniture]]. The term "Architecture" is also used for the profession of providing [[architect|architectural services]].  

'''Architecture'''  is the [[art]] and [[science]] of [[design]]ing [[building]]s and [[structure]]s. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment: from the macrolevel of [[town planning]], [[urban design]], and [[landscape architecture]] to the microlevel of construction details and [[furniture]]. The term "Architecture" is also used for the profession of providing [[architect|architectural services]].  

Architectural works are  perceived as cultural and political [[symbol]]s and works of art. Historical [[civilization]]s are often known primarily through their architectural achievements. Such buildings as the [[pyramids]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Rome|Roman]] [[Colosseum]] are cultural symbols, and are an important link in public consciousness, even when [[scholars]] have discovered much about a past civilization through other means. Cities, regions and cultures continue to identify themselves with and are known by their architectural monuments.<ref>The [[Tower Bridge]], the [[Eiffel Tower]] and the [[Colosseum]] are representative of the buildings used on advertising brochures.

Architectural works are  perceived as cultural and political [[symbol]]s and works of art. Historical [[civilization]]s are often known primarily through their architectural achievements. Such buildings as the [[pyramids]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Rome|Roman]] [[Colosseum]] are cultural symbols, and are an important link in public consciousness, even when [[scholars]] have discovered much about a past civilization through other means. Cities, regions and cultures continue to identify themselves with and are known by their architectural monuments.<ref>The [[Tower Bridge]], the [[Eiffel Tower]] and the [[Colosseum]] are representative of the buildings used on advertising brochures.

==Etymology and application of the term==  

==Etymology and application of the term==  

==The Architect==

==The Architect==

Architecture as a [[profession]] is the practice of providing [[architect#Architects in Practice|architectural services]]. The practice of architecture includes the planning, designing and oversight of a building's construction by an architect. Architectural services typically address both feasibility and [[cost]] for the [[Construction|builder]], as well as function and [[aesthetics]] for the user.  

Architecture as a [[profession]] is the practice of providing [[architect#Architects in Practice|architectural services]]. The practice of architecture includes the planning, designing and oversight of a building's construction by an architect. Architectural services typically address both feasibility and [[cost]] for the [[Construction|builder]], as well as function and [[aesthetics]] for the user.  

==Theory of Architecture==  

==Theory of Architecture==  

===Historic treatises===  

===Historic treatises===  

The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is ''[[De architectura]]'', by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]] in the early 1st century CE.<ref name="Vitruvius". According to Vitruvius a good building should satisfy the three principles of ''firmitatis utilitatis venustatis'', Translated by Henry Wotton, in 1624, as "firmness, commodity and delight" [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3]

The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is ''[[De architectura]]'', by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]] in the early 1st century CE.<ref name="Vitruvius". According to Vitruvius a good building should satisfy the three principles of ''firmitatis utilitatis venustatis'', Translated by Henry Wotton, in 1624, as "firmness, commodity and delight" [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3]

On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere [[construction|"construction"]], the renowned 20th C. architect [[Le Corbusier]] wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".Le Corbusier, ''Towards a New Architecture'', Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7

On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere [[construction|"construction"]], the renowned 20th C. architect [[Le Corbusier]] wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".Le Corbusier, ''Towards a New Architecture'', Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7

===Modern concepts of architecture===  

===Modern concepts of architecture===  

Ivar Holm points out that the values and attitudes which underly modern architecture differ both between the schools of thought which influence architecture and between individual practising architects.<ref> Holm, Ivar (2006). ''Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment''. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.</ref> Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are [[rationalism]], [[empiricism]], [[structuralism]], [[poststructuralism]], and [[phenomenology]].

Ivar Holm points out that the values and attitudes which underly modern architecture differ both between the schools of thought which influence architecture and between individual practising architects.<ref> Holm, Ivar (2006). ''Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment''. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.</ref> Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are [[rationalism]], [[empiricism]], [[structuralism]], [[poststructuralism]], and [[phenomenology]].

 

In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of [[sustainability]]. To satisfy the modern ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.

In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of [[sustainability]]. To satisfy the modern ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.

This section is a brief history of ''architectural practice''. For a description of architectural styles see main article: [[History of architecture]].  

This section is a brief history of ''architectural practice''. For a description of architectural styles see main article: [[History of architecture]].  

===Origins and the ancient world===

===Origins and the ancient world===

Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available [[building material]]s and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a [[craft]]. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed [[Vernacular architecture]] continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.

Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available [[building material]]s and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a [[craft]]. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed [[Vernacular architecture]] continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.

 

Early human settlements were mostly [[rural]]. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating [[urban area|urban areas]] which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Huyuk in [[Anatolia]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]] in India. In many ancient civilizations, such as that of the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians', architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the [[supernatural]], while in other ancient cultures such as [[Persia]] architecture and [[urban planning]] was used to exemplify the power of the state.  

Early human settlements were mostly [[rural]]. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating [[urban area|urban areas]] which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Huyuk in [[Anatolia]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]] in India. In many ancient civilizations, such as that of the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians', architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the [[supernatural]], while in other ancient cultures such as [[Persia]] architecture and [[urban planning]] was used to exemplify the power of the state.  

The architecture of different parts of [[Asia]] developed along different lines to that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many [[Asia]]n countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.

The architecture of different parts of [[Asia]] developed along different lines to that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many [[Asia]]n countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.

===The Medieval builder===

===The Medieval builder===

[[Islamic architecture]] began in the 7th century [[Common Era|CE]], developing from the architectural forms of the ancient [[Middle East]] but developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.

[[Islamic architecture]] began in the 7th century [[Common Era|CE]], developing from the architectural forms of the ancient [[Middle East]] but developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.

In [[Europe]], in both the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] and [[Medieval]] periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period. During the Medieval period [[guild]]s were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with master builder, except in the case where a cleric, such as the [[Abbot Suger]] at Saint Denis, Paris, provided the design. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.

In [[Europe]], in both the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] and [[Medieval]] periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period. During the Medieval period [[guild]]s were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with master builder, except in the case where a cleric, such as the [[Abbot Suger]] at Saint Denis, Paris, provided the design. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.

===Renaissance and the architect===

===Renaissance and the architect===

 

With the [[Renaissance]] and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - [[Brunelleschi]], [[Alberti]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Palladio]] - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between [[artist]], [[architect]] and [[engineer]], or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.  

With the [[Renaissance]] and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - [[Brunelleschi]], [[Alberti]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Palladio]] - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between [[artist]], [[architect]] and [[engineer]], or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.  

===The Industrial Revolution===

===The Industrial Revolution===

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and [[engineering]] began to separate, and the architect began to lose ground on some technical aspects of building design. He therefore concentrated on [[aesthetics]] and the [[humanist]] aspects. [[Image:StPancrasMidlandHotel.jpg|thumb|left|St Pancras Midland Hotel, [[London]]]]There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the [[Neo Gothic]] or [[Scottish Baronial]] styles.

 

With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and [[engineering]] began to separate, and the architect began to lose ground on some technical aspects of building design. He therefore concentrated on [[aesthetics]] and the [[humanist]] aspects. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the [[Neo Gothic]] or [[Scottish Baronial]] styles.

Formal architectural training, in the 19th century, at, for example [[Ecole des Beaux Arts]] in [[France]], gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.  

Formal architectural training, in the 19th century, at, for example [[Ecole des Beaux Arts]] in [[France]], gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.  

===Modernism and reaction===

===Modernism and reaction===

 

The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to [[Modern Architecture]]. Notable among these is the [[Deutscher Werkbund]], formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of [[industrial design]] is usually placed here.  

The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to [[Modern Architecture]]. Notable among these is the [[Deutscher Werkbund]], formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of [[industrial design]] is usually placed here.  

When [[Modern architecture]] was first practiced, it was an [[avant-garde]] movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings.  Immediately after [[World War I]], pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the  architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.  

When [[Modern architecture]] was first practiced, it was an [[avant-garde]] movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings.  Immediately after [[World War I]], pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the  architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.  

 

The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as [[Mies van der Rohe]] worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the [[Industrial Revolution]].

The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as [[Mies van der Rohe]] worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the [[Industrial Revolution]].

Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the [[International style (architecture)|International Style]] lost influence in the late 1970s, [[Postmodernism]] developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. [[Robert Venturi]]'s contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.

Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the [[International style (architecture)|International Style]] lost influence in the late 1970s, [[Postmodernism]] developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. [[Robert Venturi]]'s contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.

===Architecture today===  

===Architecture today===  

 

Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to [[Modernism]] and [[Postmodernism]] by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The ''Design Methodology Movement'' involving people such as [[Christopher Alexander]] started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.  

Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to [[Modernism]] and [[Postmodernism]] by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The ''Design Methodology Movement'' involving people such as [[Christopher Alexander]] started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.  

As many other concerns began to be recognized and the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of aspects such as structural systems, services and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.  

As many other concerns began to be recognized and the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of aspects such as structural systems, services and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.  

During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations within the profession itself by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect{{Ref_label|A|a|none}} from the 'project' architect within some architectural office collaborations.  

During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations within the profession itself by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect from the 'project' architect within some architectural office collaborations.  

One of most significant recent developments in the profession is the mainstreaming of [[sustainability]]. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as [[Edward Mazria]] and [[Ian McHarg]] in the US and [[Brenda and Robert Vale]] in the UK and New Zealand. The acceleration in numbers of buildings which seek to meet [[sustainable design]] principles is inline with a growing world-wide awareness of the risks of climate change. It is now widely expected of an architect that they will integrate sustainable principals into their projects. The U.S. Green Building Council's [[LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this. Other green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS (Collaborative for High Performance Schools).

One of most significant recent developments in the profession is the mainstreaming of [[sustainability]]. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as [[Edward Mazria]] and [[Ian McHarg]] in the US and [[Brenda and Robert Vale]] in the UK and New Zealand. The acceleration in numbers of buildings which seek to meet [[sustainable design]] principles is inline with a growing world-wide awareness of the risks of climate change. It is now widely expected of an architect that they will integrate sustainable principals into their projects. The U.S. Green Building Council's [[LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this. Other green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS (Collaborative for High Performance Schools).