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| − | '''Architecture''' is the [[art]] and [[science]] of [[design]]ing [[building]]s and [[structure]]s. A wider definition often includes the design of the total built environment: from the macrolevel of [[town planning]], [[urban design]], and [[landscape architecture]] to the microlevel of construction details and [[furniture]]. The term "Architecture" is also used for the profession of providing [[architect|architectural services]]. | + | ==Origin== |
| | + | ([[Latin]] ''architectura'', after the [[Greek]] ἀρχιτέκτων – ''arkhitekton'' – from ἀρχι- "chief" and τέκτων "builder, carpenter, mason") |
| | + | *[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_century 1555] |
| | + | ==Definitions== |
| | + | *1: the [[art]] or [[science]] of building; specifically : the art or [[practice]] of [[designing]] and building [[structures]] and especially habitable ones |
| | + | *2a : formation or construction resulting from or as if from a [[conscious]] act <the architecture of the [[garden]]> |
| | + | :b : a unifying or coherent [[form]] or structure <the [[novel]] lacks architecture> |
| | + | *3: architectural product or work |
| | + | *4: a [[method]] or style of building |
| | + | *5: the [[manner]] in which the components of a computer or computer system are organized and [[integrated]] |
| | + | ==Description== |
| | + | '''Architecture''' is both the [[process]] and the product of [[planning]], [[designing]], and constructing buildings and other physical [[structures]]. Architectural works, in the material form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural [[symbols]] and as works of art. Historical [[civilizations]] are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. |
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| − | Architectural design involves the [[manipulation]] of [[mass]], [[space]], [[volume]], [[texture]], [[light]], [[shadow]], [[materials]], [[program]], and other elements in order to achieve an end which is [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] as well as functional. This distinguishes Architecture from the [[applied science]] of [[engineering]] which usually concentrates on the structural and feasibility aspects of design.
| + | "Architecture" can mean: |
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| − | Architectural works are perceived as cultural and political [[symbol]]s and works of art. Historical [[civilization]]s are often known primarily through their architectural achievements. Such buildings as the [[pyramids]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and the [[Rome|Roman]] [[Colosseum]] are cultural symbols, and are an important link in public consciousness, even when [[scholars]] have discovered much about a past civilization through other means. Cities, regions and cultures continue to identify themselves with and are known by their architectural monuments.<ref>The [[Tower Bridge]], the [[Eiffel Tower]] and the [[Colosseum]] are representative of the buildings used on advertising brochures.
| + | :A general term to describe buildings and other [[physical]] [[structures]]. |
| | + | :The art and [[science]] of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures. |
| | + | :The style of [[design]] and [[method]] of construction of buildings and other physical structures. |
| | + | :The [[practice]] of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering [[professional]] services in connection with the design and construction of buildings, or built environments. |
| | + | :The design activity of the architect, from the macro-level (urban design, [[landscape]] architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture). |
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| − | ==Etymology and application of the term==
| + | ''Architecture'' has to do with planning, designing and constructing [[form]], [[space]] and [[ambience]] to [[reflect]] [[functional]], technical, [[social]], environmental and [[aesthetic]] considerations. It requires the [[creative]] [[manipulation]] and [[coordination]] of materials and technology, and of [[light]] and [[shadow]]. Often, conflicting requirements must be resolved. Architecture also encompasses the pragmatic aspects of realizing buildings and structures, including scheduling, cost estimation and construction [[administration]]. Documentation produced by architects, typically drawings, plans and technical specifications, defines the structure and/or [[behavior]] of a building or other kind of system that is to be or has been constructed. |
| − | The word ''"architecture"'' comes from the Latin, ''"architectura"'' and ultimately from Greek,''"arkitekton"'', αρχιτεκτων, an architect, or more precisely "master builder", from the combination of αρχι a "chief" or "leader" and τεκτων, a "builder" or "carpenter" [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=architect Online Etymology of the term "architect"]
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| − | While the primary application of the word "architecture" pertains to the [[built environment]], by extension, the term has come to denote the [[art]] and [[discipline]] of creating an actual, or inferring an implied or apparent plan of any complex object or [[system]]. The term can be used to connote the ''implied architecture'' of abstract things such as [[music]] or [[mathematics]], the ''apparent architecture'' of natural things, such as [[geology|geological]] formations or the [[structural biology|structure of biological cells]], or explicitly ''planned architectures'' of human-made things such as [[software]], [[computers]], [[Enterprise architecture|enterprise]]s, and [[database]]s, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a ''subjective [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]]'' from a human perspective (that of the ''user'' in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the [[Element (mathematics)|elements]] or [[wikt:component|components]] of some kind of [[structure]] or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements or components.
| + | The word "architecture" has also been adopted to describe other designed systems, especially in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology information technology]. |
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| − | ==The Architect==
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| − | Architecture as a [[profession]] is the practice of providing [[architect#Architects in Practice|architectural services]]. The practice of architecture includes the planning, designing and oversight of a building's construction by an architect. Architectural services typically address both feasibility and [[cost]] for the [[Construction|builder]], as well as function and [[aesthetics]] for the user.
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| − | In the 1440s, the Florentine architect, [[Alberti]], wrote his ''De Re Aedificatoria'', published in 1485, a year before the first edition of [[Vitruvius]], with which he was already familiar. Leon Battista Alberti, ''The Ten Books of Architecture''. Vitruvius"D. Rowland - T.N. Howe: Vitruvius. Ten Books on Architecture. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge 1999, ISBN 0-521-00292-3 Alberti gives the earliest definition of the role of the architect. The architect is to be concerned firstly with the construction. This encompasses all the practical matters of site, of materials and their limitations and of human capabiliity. The second concern is "articulation"; the building must work and must please and suit the needs of those who use it. The third concern of the architect is aesthetics, both of proportion and of ornament.
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| − | The role of the architect is constantly evolving, and is central to the design and implementation of the [[Social environment|environments]] in which people live. In order to obtain the skills and knowledge required to design, plan and oversee a diverse range of projects, architects must go through extensive formal education, coupled with a requisite amount of professional practice.
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| − | The work of an architect is an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary field]], drawing upon [[mathematics]], [[science]], [[art]], [[technology]], [[social sciences]], [[politics]] and [[history]], and often governed by the architect's personal approach or [[philosophy]].
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| − | [[Vitruvius]], the earliest known architectural theorist, states: ''"Architecture is a science, arising out of many other sciences, and adorned with much and varied learning: by the help of which a judgement is formed of those works which are the result of other arts."'' He adds that an architect should be well versed in other fields of learning such as [[music]] and [[astronomy]]."Vitruvius"
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| − | ==Theory of Architecture==
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| − | ===Historic treatises===
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| − | The earliest written work on the subject of architecture is ''[[De architectura]]'', by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]] in the early 1st century CE.<ref name="Vitruvius". According to Vitruvius a good building should satisfy the three principles of ''firmitatis utilitatis venustatis'', Translated by Henry Wotton, in 1624, as "firmness, commodity and delight" [http://www.gardenvisit.com/landscape/LIH/history/vitruvius.htm#ch1-3]
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| − | Vitruvius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Vitruvius/home.html] which translates roughly as
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| − | * durability - it should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
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| − | * utility - it should be useful; and function well for the people using it.
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| − | * beauty - it should delight people, and raise their spirits.
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| − | According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfil each of these three attributes as well as possible.
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| − | [[Leone Battista Alberti]], who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the [[Golden Mean]]. The most important aspect of beauty was therefore an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially; and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing of [[Vasari]].<ref>Françoise Choay, ''Alberti and Vitruvius'', editor, Joseph Rykwert, Profile 21, Architectural Design, Vol 49 No 5-6
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| − | The 19th century English art critic, [[John Ruskin]], in his ''Seven Lamps of Architecture'', published 1849, John Ruskin, ''The Seven Lamps of Architecture'', G. Allen (1880), reprinted Dover , (1989) ISBN 0-486-26145-X was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture. Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by man … that the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure". For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, at the very least.
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| − | On the difference between the ideals of "architecture" and mere [[construction|"construction"]], the renowned 20th C. architect [[Le Corbusier]] wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That is Architecture".Le Corbusier, ''Towards a New Architecture'', Dover Publications(1985). ISBN 0-486-25023-7
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| − | ===Modern concepts of architecture===
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| − | The great 19th century architect of skyscrapers, [[Louis Sullivan]], promoted an overriding precept to architectural design: "[[Form follows function]]".
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| − | While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to functionality was met with both popularity and scepticism, it had the effect of introducing the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius "utility". "Function" came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.
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| − | Nunzia Rondanini stated, “Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development. To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art’s sake is not only reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades form into a mere instrumentality”. Rondanini, Nunzia ''Architecture and Social Change'' Heresies II, Vol. 3, No. 3, New York, Neresies Collective Inc., 1981.
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| − | Ivar Holm points out that the values and attitudes which underly modern architecture differ both between the schools of thought which influence architecture and between individual practising architects.<ref> Holm, Ivar (2006). ''Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment''. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.</ref> Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to building design are [[rationalism]], [[empiricism]], [[structuralism]], [[poststructuralism]], and [[phenomenology]].
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| − | In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both structure and function, the consideration of [[sustainability]]. To satisfy the modern ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management and lighting.
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| − | There is also a concept among architects that although architecture does not exist in a vacuum, architectural form cannot be merely a compilation of historical precedent, functional necessities, and socially aware concerns, but that to achieve significance, a work of architecture must be a transcendent synthesis of all of the former and a creation of worth in and of itself.
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| − | ==History==
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| − | This section is a brief history of ''architectural practice''. For a description of architectural styles see main article: [[History of architecture]].
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| − | ===Origins and the ancient world===
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| − | Architecture first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.) and means (available [[building material]]s and attendant skills). As human cultures developed and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, architecture became a [[craft]]. Here there is first a process of trial and error, and later improvisation or replication of a successful trial. What is termed [[Vernacular architecture]] continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day.
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| − | Early human settlements were mostly [[rural]]. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand resulting in urbanization thus creating [[urban area|urban areas]] which grew and evolved very rapidly in some cases, such as that of Çatal Huyuk in [[Anatolia]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]] in India. In many ancient civilizations, such as that of the Egyptians' and Mesopotamians', architecture and urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the [[supernatural]], while in other ancient cultures such as [[Persia]] architecture and [[urban planning]] was used to exemplify the power of the state.
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| − | The architecture and [[urbanism]] of the [[Classical antiquity|Classical civilizations]] such as the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building types emerged. Architectural styles developed.
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| − | Texts on architecture began to be written in the Classical period. These became canons to be followed in important works, especially religious architecture. Some examples of canons are found in the writings of [[Vitruvius]], the ''KaoGongJi'' of ancient [[China]]<ref>7th-5th centuries BCE.</ref> and [[Vaastu Shastra]] of ancient [[India]].
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| − | The architecture of different parts of [[Asia]] developed along different lines to that of Europe, Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics. Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. In many [[Asia]]n countries a pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed specifically to enhance the natural landscape.
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| − | ===The Medieval builder===
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| − | [[Islamic architecture]] began in the 7th century [[Common Era|CE]], developing from the architectural forms of the ancient [[Middle East]] but developing features to suit the religious and social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa and Spain, and were to become a significant stylistic influence on European architecture during the Medieval period.
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| − | In [[Europe]], in both the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] and [[Medieval]] periods, buildings were not attributed to specific individuals and the names of the architects frequently unknown, despite the vast scale of the many religious buildings extant from this period. During the Medieval period [[guild]]s were formed by craftsmen to organise their trade and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings. The role of architect was usually one with master builder, except in the case where a cleric, such as the [[Abbot Suger]] at Saint Denis, Paris, provided the design. Over time the complexity of buildings and their types increased. General civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built. Many new building types such as schools, hospitals, and recreational facilities emerged.
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| − | ===Renaissance and the architect===
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| − | With the [[Renaissance]] and its emphasis on the individual and humanity rather than religion, and with all its attendant progress and achievements, a new chapter began. Buildings were ascribed to specific architects - [[Brunelleschi]], [[Alberti]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Palladio]] - and the cult of the individual had begun. But there was no dividing line between [[artist]], [[architect]] and [[engineer]], or any of the related vocations. At this stage, it was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations involved was within the scope of the generalist.
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| − | ===The Industrial Revolution===
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| − | With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and technology, architecture and [[engineering]] began to separate, and the architect began to lose ground on some technical aspects of building design. He therefore concentrated on [[aesthetics]] and the [[humanist]] aspects. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that were created in the [[Neo Gothic]] or [[Scottish Baronial]] styles.
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| − | Formal architectural training, in the 19th century, at, for example [[Ecole des Beaux Arts]] in [[France]], gave much emphasis to the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility. Effective architects generally received their training in the offices of other architects, graduating to the role from draughtsmen or clerks.
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| − | Meanwhile, the [[Industrial Revolution]] laid open the door for mass production and consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products, once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine production. Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental.
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| − | ===Modernism and reaction===
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| − | The dissatisfaction with such a general situation at the turn of the twentieth century gave rise to many new lines of thought that served as precursors to [[Modern Architecture]]. Notable among these is the [[Deutscher Werkbund]], formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the profession of [[industrial design]] is usually placed here.
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| − | Following this lead, the [[Bauhaus]] school, founded in [[Germany]] in [[1919]], consciously rejected [[history]] and looked at architecture as a synthesis of art, craft, and technology.
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| − | When [[Modern architecture]] was first practiced, it was an [[avant-garde]] movement with moral, philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after [[World War I]], pioneering modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order.
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| − | The approach of the Modernist architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings that displayed their construction and structure, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind traditional forms, were seen as beautiful in their own right. Architects such as [[Mies van der Rohe]] worked to create beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the new means and methods made possible by the [[Industrial Revolution]].
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| − | Many architects resisted Modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of ornamented styles. As the founders of the [[International style (architecture)|International Style]] lost influence in the late 1970s, [[Postmodernism]] developed as a reaction against the austerity of Modernism. [[Robert Venturi]]'s contention that a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed inside and embellished on the outside) was better than a "duck" (a building in which the whole form and its function are tied together) gives an idea of this approach.
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| − | ===Architecture today===
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| − | Part of the architectural profession, and also some non-architects, responded to [[Modernism]] and [[Postmodernism]] by going to what they considered the root of the problem. They felt that architecture was not a personal philosophical or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it had to consider everyday needs of people and use technology to give a livable environment. The ''Design Methodology Movement'' involving people such as [[Christopher Alexander]] started searching for more people-oriented designs. Extensive studies on areas such as behavioral, environmental, and social sciences were done and started informing the design process.
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| − | As many other concerns began to be recognized and the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of aspects such as structural systems, services and technologies), architecture started becoming more multi-disciplinary than ever. Architecture today usually requires a team of specialist professionals, with the architect being one of many, although usually the team leader.
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| − | During the last two decades of the twentieth century and into the new millennium, the field of architecture saw the rise of specializations within the profession itself by project type, technological expertise or project delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design' architect from the 'project' architect within some architectural office collaborations.
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| − | One of most significant recent developments in the profession is the mainstreaming of [[sustainability]]. Sustainability in architecture was pioneered in the 1970s by architects such as [[Edward Mazria]] and [[Ian McHarg]] in the US and [[Brenda and Robert Vale]] in the UK and New Zealand. The acceleration in numbers of buildings which seek to meet [[sustainable design]] principles is inline with a growing world-wide awareness of the risks of climate change. It is now widely expected of an architect that they will integrate sustainable principals into their projects. The U.S. Green Building Council's [[LEED]] (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this. Other green building rating systems include Energy Star, Green Globes, and CHPS (Collaborative for High Performance Schools).
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| − | [[Category: General Reference]]
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| | [[Category: Architecture]] | | [[Category: Architecture]] |
