Changes

[[Image:Computersciencesmall.jpg|right]]

[[Image:Computersciencesmall.jpg|right]]

'''Computer Science''', or '''computing science''', is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s. ''Computer science is the study of information''" [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html] Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies ''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University,"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]  

'''Computer Science''', or '''computing science''', is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s. ''Computer science is the study of information''" [https://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html] Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies ''Computer science is the study of computation.''" [https://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University,"''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''" [https://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 Massey University]  

Computer science has many sub-fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s (such as [[computational complexity theory]]). Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems with solutions. A further subfield, [[human-computer interaction]], focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable and universally accessible to [[public goods|people]].  

Computer science has many sub-fields; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others relate to properties of [[computational problem]]s (such as [[computational complexity theory]]). Still others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing computations, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming language]]s to solve specific computational problems with solutions. A further subfield, [[human-computer interaction]], focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable and universally accessible to [[public goods|people]].  

== History ==

== History ==

The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[digital computer]] by many centuries. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the [[abacus]], have existed since antiquity. [[Wilhelm Schickard]] built the first mechanical calculator  in 1623. Calculator Timeline, [http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/calculator_time-line.html] Vintage Calculator Web Museum [[Charles Babbage]] designed a [[difference engine]] in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] times (between 1837 and 1901) [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp] Science Museum - Introduction to Babbage helped by [[Ada Lovelace]], [http://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.htm] A Selection and Adaptation From Ada's Notes found in "Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers," by Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA. Around 1900 the [[IBM]] corporation sold punch-card machines [http://www.pattonhq.com/ibm.html] IBM Punch Cards in the U.S. Army. However all of these machines were constrained to perform a single task, or at best, some subset of all possible tasks.

The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[digital computer]] by many centuries. Machines for calculating fixed numerical tasks, such as the [[abacus]], have existed since antiquity. [[Wilhelm Schickard]] built the first mechanical calculator  in 1623. Calculator Timeline, [https://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/calculator_time-line.html] Vintage Calculator Web Museum [[Charles Babbage]] designed a [[difference engine]] in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] times (between 1837 and 1901) [https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp] Science Museum - Introduction to Babbage helped by [[Ada Lovelace]], [https://www.scottlan.edu/Lriddle/women/ada-love.htm] A Selection and Adaptation From Ada's Notes found in "Ada, The Enchantress of Numbers," by Betty Alexandra Toole Ed.D. Strawberry Press, Mill Valley, CA. Around 1900 the [[IBM]] corporation sold punch-card machines [https://www.pattonhq.com/ibm.html] IBM Punch Cards in the U.S. Army. However all of these machines were constrained to perform a single task, or at best, some subset of all possible tasks.

During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs."Denning_cs_discipline" Computer Science: The Discipline [http://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/][http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf], Encyclopedia of Computer Science  Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.

During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations, the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960s, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs."Denning_cs_discipline" Computer Science: The Discipline [https://web.archive.org/web/20060525195404/][https://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf], Encyclopedia of Computer Science  Since practical computers became available, many applications of computing have become distinct areas of study in their own right.

== Major achievements ==

== Major achievements ==

;Applications within computer science

;Applications within computer science

* A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[halting problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems [http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf] Computer Science: Achievements and Challenges circa 2000}}</ref>.

* A formal definition of [[computation]] and [[computability]], and proof that there are computationally [[halting problem|unsolvable]] and [[Intractable#Intractability|intractable]] problems [https://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf] Computer Science: Achievements and Challenges circa 2000}}</ref>.

* The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction, Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-01153-0

* The concept of a [[programming language]], a tool for the precise expression of methodological information at various levels of abstraction, Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-01153-0

"The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' — the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects.

"The computer revolution is a revolution in the way we think and in the way we express what we think. The essence of this change is the emergence of what might best be called ''procedural epistemology'' — the study of the structure of knowledge from an imperative point of view, as opposed to the more declarative point of view taken by classical mathematical subjects.

;Applications outside of computing

;Applications outside of computing

* Sparked the [[Digital Revolution]] which led to the current [[Information Age]] [http://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdf]

* Sparked the [[Digital Revolution]] which led to the current [[Information Age]] [https://www.cis.cornell.edu/Dean/Presentations/Slides/bgu.pdf]

* In [[cryptography]], [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma|breaking the Enigma machine]] was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.[[David Kahn]], [[The Codebreakers]], 1967, ISBN 0-684-83130-9.

* In [[cryptography]], [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma|breaking the Enigma machine]] was an important factor contributing to the Allied victory in World War II.[[David Kahn]], [[The Codebreakers]], 1967, ISBN 0-684-83130-9.

* [[Scientific computing]] enabled advanced study of the mind and mapping the human genome was possible with [[Human Genome Project]]. [[Distributed computing]] projects like [[Folding@home]] explore [[protein folding]].

* [[Scientific computing]] enabled advanced study of the mind and mapping the human genome was possible with [[Human Genome Project]]. [[Distributed computing]] projects like [[Folding@home]] explore [[protein folding]].

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines<ref name="Denning_cs_discipline" />. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]].

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines<ref name="Denning_cs_discipline" />. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]].

The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. [[David Parnas]], taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes] Annals of Software Engineering , p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of

The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term "software engineering" means, and how computer science is defined. [[David Parnas]], taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making the two separate but complementary disciplines.[https://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/parnas98software.html Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes] Annals of Software Engineering , p. 19: "Rather than treat software engineering as a subfield of

computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,

computer science, I treat it as an element of the set, {Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering,

Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}.".

Chemical Engineering, Electrical Engineering,....}.".

Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula.  Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming.

Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula.  Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term "software engineering" actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming.

: See [[Peter J. Denning]], ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Great principles in computing curricula]'', Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.

: See [[Peter J. Denning]], ''[https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=971303&dl=ACM&coll=&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Great principles in computing curricula]'', Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2004.

== References ==

== References ==

* [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998.

* [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [https://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Classification System]. 1998.

* [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf] Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001.

* [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [https://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf] Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001.

* [[Peter J. Denning]]. ''[http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Is computer science science?]'', Communications of the ACM, April 2005.

* [[Peter J. Denning]]. ''[https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1053309&coll=&dl=ACM&CFID=15151515&CFTOKEN=6184618 Is computer science science?]'', Communications of the ACM, April 2005.

== External links ==

== External links ==

* [http://csdir.org Computer Science Directory] - search engine and directory dedicated to computer science.

* [https://csdir.org Computer Science Directory] - search engine and directory dedicated to computer science.

* [http://www.lecturefox.com/computerscience/ Directory of free university lectures in Computer Science]  

* [https://www.lecturefox.com/computerscience/ Directory of free university lectures in Computer Science]  

* [http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies]

* [https://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies]

* [http://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/gallery/ Photographs of computer scientists] ([[Bertrand Meyer]]'s gallery)

* [https://se.ethz.ch/~meyer/gallery/ Photographs of computer scientists] ([[Bertrand Meyer]]'s gallery)

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Computer Science]]

[[Category: Computer Science]]