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'''Culture''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cultura'' stemming from ''colere'', meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. In some contexts, a frequent usage of the term ''culture'' is to indicate artifacts in music, literature, painting and sculpture, theater and film.[[Raymond Williams]] (1976) ''[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society]]''. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87-93 and 236-8. Although some people identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in [[high culture]], [[low culture]], [[folk culture]], or [[popular culture]]) John Befrger ''Ways of Seeing'', anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For the, culture thus includes technology, art, science, as well as  moral systems.

'''Culture''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cultura'' stemming from ''colere'', meaning "to cultivate,") generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of "culture" reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. In some contexts, a frequent usage of the term ''culture'' is to indicate artifacts in music, literature, painting and sculpture, theater and film.[[Raymond Williams]] (1976) ''[[Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society]]''. Rev. Ed. (NewYork: Oxford UP, 1983), pp. 87-93 and 236-8. Although some people identify culture in terms of consumption and consumer goods (as in [[high culture]], [[low culture]], [[folk culture]], or [[popular culture]]) John Befrger ''Ways of Seeing'', anthropologists understand "culture" to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded. For the, culture thus includes technology, art, science, as well as  moral systems.

[[anthropology|Anthropologists]] most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences [[symbol]]ically. This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, [[primatology|primatologists]] have identified aspects of culture among humankind's closest relatives in the animal kingdom.<ref>Goodall, J. 1986. ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.''</ref>  As a rule, [[archaeology|archaeologists]] focus on material culture (the material remains of human activity), whereas [[social anthropology|social anthropologists]] focus on social interactions, statuses and institutions, and [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] focus on norms and values.  This division of labor reflects the different conditions under which different anthropologists have worked, and the practical need to focus research.  It does not necessarily reflect a theory of culture that conceptually distinguishes between the material, the social, and the normative, nor does it reflect three competing theories of culture.

[[anthropology|Anthropologists]] most commonly use the term "culture" to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences [[symbol]]ically. This capacity has long been taken as a defining feature of the humans. However, [[primatology|primatologists]] have identified aspects of culture among humankind's closest relatives in the animal kingdom.<ref>Goodall, J. 1986. ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.''</ref>  As a rule, [[archaeology|archaeologists]] focus on material culture (the material remains of human activity), whereas [[social anthropology|social anthropologists]] focus on social interactions, statuses and institutions, and [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] focus on norms and values.  This division of labor reflects the different conditions under which different anthropologists have worked, and the practical need to focus research.  It does not necessarily reflect a theory of culture that conceptually distinguishes between the material, the social, and the normative, nor does it reflect three competing theories of culture.

== Ways of looking at culture ==

== Ways of looking at culture ==

=== Culture as civilization ===

=== Culture as civilization ===

Many people today have an idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts it with "[[nature]]." According to this way of thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis|the Leavisites]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world”Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html] ''Culture and Anarchy.''] Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "... culture being a pursuit of our total [[perfection]] by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world".<ref name=anarchy />

Many people today have an idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This notion of culture reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies "culture" with "[[civilization]]" and contrasts it with "[[nature]]." According to this way of thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Some cultural theorists have thus tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists such as [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis|the Leavisites]] regard culture as simply the result of "the best that has been thought and said in the world”Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html] ''Culture and Anarchy.''] Arnold contrasted mass/popular culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: "... culture being a pursuit of our total [[perfection]] by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world".<ref name=anarchy />

In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite|élite]] activities such as [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called "[[high culture]]", namely the culture of the [[Ruling class|ruling]] [[social group]], Bakhtin 1981, p.4 to distinguish them from [[mass culture]] or [[popular culture]].

In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite|élite]] activities such as [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. These are often called "[[high culture]]", namely the culture of the [[Ruling class|ruling]] [[social group]], Bakhtin 1981, p.4 to distinguish them from [[mass culture]] or [[popular culture]].

==Organizational Culture & Change==

==Organizational Culture & Change==

When one wants to change something in the culture of a company one has to keep in consideration that this is a long term project. Corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change.  

When one wants to change something in the culture of a company one has to keep in consideration that this is a long term project. Corporate culture is something that is very hard to change and employees need time to get used to the new way of organizing. For companies with a very strong and specific culture it will be even harder to change.  

==Cultures by region==

==Cultures by region==

Many regional cultures have been influenced by contact with others, such as by [[colonization]], [[trade]], [[migration]], [[mass media]] and [[religion]].  

Many regional cultures have been influenced by contact with others, such as by [[colonization]], [[trade]], [[migration]], [[mass media]] and [[religion]].  

== Belief systems ==

== Belief systems ==

Religion and other belief systems are often integral to a culture. Religion, from the Latin ''religare,'' meaning "to bind fast", is a feature of cultures throughout human history. The ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion'' defines religion in the following way:

Religion and other belief systems are often integral to a culture. Religion, from the Latin ''religare,'' meaning "to bind fast", is a feature of cultures throughout human history. The ''Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion'' defines religion in the following way:

===Eastern religion and philosophy===

===Eastern religion and philosophy===

 

Philosophy and religion are often closely interwoven in Eastern thought.  Many Asian religious and philosophical traditions originated in India and China and spread across Asia through [[cultural diffusion]] and the migration of peoples.  [[Hinduism]] is the wellspring of [[Buddhism]], the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] branch of which spread north and eastwards from India into Tibet, China, Mongolia, Japan and Korea and south from China into Vietnam. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism spread throughout [[Southeast Asia]], including Sri Lanka, parts of southwest China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand.   

Philosophy and religion are often closely interwoven in Eastern thought.  Many Asian religious and philosophical traditions originated in India and China and spread across Asia through [[cultural diffusion]] and the migration of peoples.  [[Hinduism]] is the wellspring of [[Buddhism]], the [[Mahayana|Mahāyāna]] branch of which spread north and eastwards from India into Tibet, China, Mongolia, Japan and Korea and south from China into Vietnam. [[Theravada|Theravāda]] Buddhism spread throughout [[Southeast Asia]], including Sri Lanka, parts of southwest China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand.   

===Folk religions===

===Folk religions===

Folk religions practiced by tribal groups are common in Asia, Africa and the Americas.  Their influence can be considerable; may pervade the culture and even become the state religion, as with [[Shintoism]].  Like the other major religions, folk religion answers human needs for reassurance in times of trouble, healing, averting misfortune and providing [[rituals]] that address the major passages and transitions in human life.

Folk religions practiced by tribal groups are common in Asia, Africa and the Americas.  Their influence can be considerable; may pervade the culture and even become the state religion, as with [[Shintoism]].  Like the other major religions, folk religion answers human needs for reassurance in times of trouble, healing, averting misfortune and providing [[rituals]] that address the major passages and transitions in human life.

==Cultural change==

==Cultural change==

Cultures, by [[predisposition]], both embrace and resist [[change]], depending on culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One gender might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in [[western culture]]s.  Thus there are both dynamic influences that encourage acceptance of new things, and conservative forces that resist change.     

Cultures, by [[predisposition]], both embrace and resist [[change]], depending on culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One gender might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in [[western culture]]s.  Thus there are both dynamic influences that encourage acceptance of new things, and conservative forces that resist change.     

Culture change is complex and has far-ranging effects. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that a [[holistic]] approach to the study of cultures and their environments is needed to understand all of the various aspects of change.  Human existence may best be looked at as a "multifaceted whole." Only from this vantage can one grasp the realities of culture change.

Culture change is complex and has far-ranging effects. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that a [[holistic]] approach to the study of cultures and their environments is needed to understand all of the various aspects of change.  Human existence may best be looked at as a "multifaceted whole." Only from this vantage can one grasp the realities of culture change.

==References==

==References==

* Ankerl,Guy: ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.'' Geneva: INUPRESS, 2000, ISBN 2881550045  

* Ankerl,Guy: ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western.'' Geneva: INUPRESS, 2000, ISBN 2881550045  

* Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html ''Culture and Anarchy.''] New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.

* Arnold, Matthew. 1869. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html ''Culture and Anarchy.''] New York: Macmillan. Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.