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Created page with 'File:lighterstill.jpgright|frame '''Defense''' mechanisms are psychological strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with [[real...'
[[File:lighterstill.jpg]][[File:Defense.jpg|right|frame]]
'''Defense''' [[mechanisms]] are [[psychological]] strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with [[reality]] and to maintain self-image. [[Health]]y [[persons]] normally use different defences throughout life. An [[ego]] defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its [[persistent]] use leads to maladaptive [[behavior]] such that the [[physical]] and/or [[mental]] health of the [[individual]] is adversely affected. The [[purpose]] of the Ego Defence Mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from [[anxiety]], social sanctions or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope.[1]
<center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Defense'''''(s), follow [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Defenses '''''this link'''''].</center>
They are more accurately referred to as ''ego defence mechanisms'', and can thus be categorized as occurring when the id impulses are in conflict with each other, when the id impulses conflict with super-ego [[values]] and [[beliefs]], and when an external threat is posed to the ego.
The term "defence mechanism" is often thought to refer to a definitive singular term for [[personality]] traits which arise due to loss or [[trauma]]tic [[experiences]], but more accurately refers to several types of reactions which were identified during and after daughter Anna Freud's time.
==Structural model: The id, ego, and superego==
The [[concept]] of [[id]] impulses comes from [[Sigmund Freud]]’s structural [[model]]. According to this [[theory]], id impulses are based on the [[pleasure]] principle: instant gratification of one's own [[desires]] and [[needs]]. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents [[biologic]] [[instinct]]ual impulses in ourselves, such as aggression ([[Thanatos]] or the Death instinct) and [[sexuality]] ([[Eros]] or the Life instinct). For example, when the id impulses (e.g. desire to have [[sexual intercourse|sexual relations]] with a stranger) conflict with the superego (e.g. belief in societal conventions of not having sex with unknown persons), unsatisfied [[feelings]] of [[anxiety]] come to the surface. To reduce these [[negative]] feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms (conscious or unconscious blockage of the id impulses).
===Definitions of individual psyche structures===
Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality:
*Id: a selfish, [[primitive]], childish, [[pleasure]]-oriented part of the [[personality]] with no ability to delay gratification. "The Child".
*Superego: internalized societal and [[parent]]al [[standards]] of "[[good]]" and "[[bad]]", "right" and "wrong" [[behavior]]. "The Parent".
*[[Ego]]: the moderator between the id and superego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as our "Sense of Self." "The Adult".
===Primary and secondary processes===
In the ego, there are two ongoing [[process]]es. First, there is the [[unconscious]] primary process, where the [[thoughts]] are not organized in a coherent way, the [[feelings]] can shift, contradictions are not in conflict or are just not [[perceived]] that way, and condensations arise. There is no [[logic]] and no [[time line]]. [[Lust]] is important for this [[process]]. By contrast, there is the conscious secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and [[thoughts]] must be organized in a coherent way. Most unconscious thoughts originate here.
===The reality principle===
Id impulses are not appropriate in [[civilized]] [[society]], so society presses us to modify the [[pleasure]] principle in favor of the [[reality]] principle; that is, the requirements of the external world.
===Formation of the superego===
The ''superego'' forms as the child grows and learns [[parental]] and [[social]] [[standards]]. The superego consists of two [[structures]]: the [[conscience]], which stores [[information]] about what is "[[bad]]" and what has been punished and the ego [[ideal]], which stores information about what is "[[good]]" and what one "[[obligation|should]]" do or be.
===The ego's use of defense mechanisms===
When [[anxiety]] becomes too overwhelming, it is then the place of the ego to employ ''defense mechanisms'' to protect the [[individual]]. [[Feelings]] of [[guilt]], embarrassmenhttp://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/skins/common/images/button_link.pngt and shame often accompany the feeling of anxiety. In the first definitive book on defense mechanisms, ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense'' (1936), [[Anna Freud]] introduced the [[concept]] of signal anxiety; she stated that it was "not directly a conflicted instinctual tension but a signal occurring in the ego of an anticipated instinctual tension". The signaling [[function]] of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to warn the [[organism]] of danger or a threat to its [[equilibrium]]. The anxiety is felt as an increase in [[bodily]] or [[mental]] [[tension]] and the signal that the organism receives in this way allows it the possibility of taking defensive [[action]] towards the perceived danger. Defense mechanisms work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, or by unconscious or conscious blockage of these impulses.
==Categorization of Defence Mechanisms==
===Level 1 Defense Mechanisms===
The [[mechanisms]] on this level, when predominating, almost always are severely pathological. These three defenses, in conjunction, permit one to effectively rearrange external [[experiences]] to eliminate the need to cope with [[reality]]. The pathological users of these mechanisms frequently appear crazy or insane to others. These are the "psychotic" defences, common in overt [[psychosis]]. However, they are found in [[dreams]] and throughout childhood as well.
They include:
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial Denial]: Refusal to accept external [[reality]] because it is too threatening; arguing against an anxiety-provoking stimulus by stating it doesn't exist; resolution of [[emotion]]al conflict and reduction of anxiety by refusing to [[perceive]] or consciously acknowledge the more unpleasant aspects of external reality.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion Distortion]: A gross reshaping of external reality to meet internal [[needs]].
*Delusional Projection: Grossly frank about external reality, usually of a persecutory nature.
===Level 2 Defence Mechanisms===
These [[mechanisms]] are often present in adults and more commonly present in adolescents. These mechanisms lessen di[[stress]] and [[anxiety]] provoked by threatening people or by uncomfortable reality. People who excessively use such defenses are seen as socially undesirable in that they are immature, difficult to deal with and seriously out of [[touch]] with reality. These are the so-called "immature" defenses and overuse almost always leads to serious problems in a person's ability to cope effectively. These defenses are often seen in severe [[depression]] and [[personality]] disorders. In adolescence, the occurrence of all of these defenses is normal.
These include:
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_(psychology) Fantasy]: Tendency to retreat into fantasy in order to resolve inner and outer conflicts.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection Projection]: Projection is a primitive form of [[paranoia]]. Projection also reduces [[anxiety]] by allowing the [[expression]] of the ineffective impulses or [[desires]] without becoming consciously aware of them; attributing one's own unacknowledged unacceptable/unwanted [[thoughts]] and [[emotions]] to another; includes severe [[prejudice]], severe [[jealousy]], hyper-vigilance to external danger, and "injustice collecting". It is shifting one's unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses within oneself onto someone else, such that those same thoughts, feelings, [[beliefs]] and motivations are perceived as being possessed by the other.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatization Somatization]: The [[transformation]] of [[negative]] feelings towards others into negative feelings toward self, [[pain]], illness, and anxiety.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior Passive aggression]: Aggression towards others expressed indirectly or passively.
*Acting out: Direct [[expression]] of an unconscious wish or impulse in [[action]], without conscious awareness of the [[emotion]] that drives that expressive [[behavior]].
*Idealization: Unconsciously choosing to [[perceive]] another [[individual]] as having more positive qualities than he or she may actually have.[2]
===Level 3 Defence Mechanisms===
These [[mechanisms]] are considered neurotic, but fairly common in adults. Such defenses have short-term advantages in coping, but can often cause long-term problems in [[relationships]], work and in enjoying life when used as one's primary style of coping with the world.
These include:
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_(psychology) Displacement]: Defence mechanism that shifts [[sexual]] or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable or less threatening target; redirecting [[emotion]] to a safer outlet; separation of emotion from its real object and redirection of the [[intense]] emotion toward someone or something that is less offensive or threatening in order to avoid dealing directly with what is [[fear|frightening]] or threatening. For example, a mother may yell at her child because she is angry with her husband.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology) Dissociation]: Temporary drastic modification of one's [[personal]] [[identity]] or [[character]] to avoid emotional distress; separation or postponement of a feeling that normally would accompany a situation or thought.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_(psychology) Isolation]: Separation of feelings from [[ideas]] and [[events]], for example, describing a [[violence|murder]] with graphic details but without any [[emotion]].
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectualization Intellectualization]: A form of [[isolation]]; concentrating on the [[intellectual]] components of a situation so as to distance oneself from the associated anxiety-provoking emotions; separation of emotion from [[ideas]]; [[thinking]] about wishes in [[formal]], affectively bland terms and not acting on them; avoiding unacceptable emotions by [[focus]]ing on the intellectual aspects (e.g. Isolation, *Rationalization, [[Ritual]], Undoing, Compensation, [[Magic]]al thinking).
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_Formation Reaction Formation]: Converting unconscious wishes or impulses that are perceived to be dangerous into their opposites; [[behavior]] that is completely the opposite of what one really wants or feels; taking the opposite [[belief]] because the true belief causes [[anxiety]]. This defense can work effectively for coping in the short term, but will eventually break down.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_repression Repression]: [[Process]] of pulling [[thoughts]] into the unconscious and preventing [[pain]]ful or dangerous thoughts from entering [[consciousness]]; seemingly unexplainable [[naivete]], [[memory]] lapse or lack of awareness of one's own situation and condition; the emotion is conscious, but the idea behind it is absent.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_(psychology) Regression]: Temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more [[mature]] [[manner]].
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology) Rationalization]: Where a person convinces him or herself that no wrong was done and that all is or was all right through faulty and [[false]] [[reason]]ing. An indicator of this defense mechanism can be seen socially as the formulation of convenient excuses.
===Level 4 Defence Mechanisms===
These are commonly found among emotionally [[healthy]] adults and are considered [[mature]], even though many have their [[origins]] in an immature stage of [[growth|development]]. They have been adapted through the years in order to optimize success in life and [[relationships]]. The use of these defenses enhances [[pleasure]] and feelings of control. These defenses help us integrate conflicting emotions and thoughts, while still remaining effective. Those who use these mechanisms are usually considered [[virtue|virtuous]].
They include:
*Altruism: Constructive service to others that brings pleasure and personal satisfaction
*Anticipation: Realistic planning for future discomfort
*[[Humor]]: Overt expression of ideas and feelings (especially those that are unpleasant to focus on or too terrible to talk about) that gives pleasure to others. Humor, which explores the absurdity inherent in any event, enables someone to "call a spade a spade", while "wit" is a form of displacement (see above under Category 3). Wit refers to the serious or distressing in a humorous way, rather than disarming it; the thoughts remain distressing, but they are "skirted round" by witticism.
*Identification: The unconscious modeling of one's self upon another person's character and behavior.
*Introjection: Identifying with some idea or object so deeply that it becomes a part of that person.
*Sublimation: Transformation of negative emotions or instincts into positive actions, behavior, or emotion.
*Suppression: The conscious process of pushing thoughts into the preconscious; the conscious decision to delay paying attention to an emotion or need in order to cope with the present reality; making it possible to later access uncomfortable or distressing emotions while accepting them.
==Other theories and classifications==
The list of defence mechanisms is huge and there is no theoretical [[consensus]] on the number of defence mechanisms. Classifying defence mechanisms according to some of their properties (i.e. underlying mechanisms, similarities or connections with [[personality]]) has been attempted. Different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defense mechanisms. Large reviews of theories of defence mechanisms are available from Paulhus, Fridhandler and Hayes (1997) and Cramer (1991).[3][4] Also, the Journal of Personality (1998) published a special issue on defense mechanisms.[5]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Kernberg Otto Kernberg] (1967) has developed a theory of borderline personality organization of which one consequence may be [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder borderline personality disorder]. His theory is based on ego psychological object relations theory. Borderline personality organization develops when the child cannot integrate positive and negative mental objects together. Kernberg views the use of primitive defense mechanisms as central to this personality organization. Primitive psychological defenses are projection, denial, dissociation or splitting and they are called borderline defence mechanisms. Also, devaluation and projective identification are seen as borderline defences.[6]
In [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Eman_Vaillant George Eman Vaillant's] (1977) categorization, defences form a continuum related to their psychoanalytical developmental level.[7] Vaillant's levels are:
*Level I - psychotic defenses (i.e. psychotic denial, delusional projection)
*Level II - immature defenses (i.e. fantasy, projection, passive aggression, acting out)
*Level III - neurotic defenses (i.e. intellectualization, reaction formation, dissociation, displacement, repression)
*Level IV - mature defenses (i.e. humour, sublimation, suppression, altruism, anticipation)
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Plutchik Robert Plutchik]'s (1979) theory views defences as derivatives of basic emotions. Defence mechanisms in his theory are (in order of placement in circumplex model): reaction formation, denial, repression, regression, compensation, projection, displacement, intellectualization.[8]
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-IV DSM-IV]) published by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association American Psychiatric Association] (1994) includes a tentative diagnostic axis for defense mechanisms.[9] This classification is largely based on Vaillant's [[hierarchical]] view of defences, but has some modifications. Examples include: denial, fantasy, rationalization, regression, isolation, projection, and displacement.
==References==
# "defense mechanisms -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
# Vaillant, George Eman (1992). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Ny6wkHI9qUcC&pg=PA238&vq=Idealization&dq=Ego+Mechanisms+of+Defense&lr=&source=gbs_search_s&sig=cIOADH7RZa9b4afc1AxxnCO4Q0E&hl=en Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers]. American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 238. ISBN 0880484047.
# Paulhus, D.L., Fridhandler B., & Hayes S. (1997). Psychological defense: Contemporary theory and research. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson & S.R. Briggs (Ed.), Handbook of personality psychology (543-579). California: Academic Press.
# Cramer, P. (1991). The Development of Defence Mechanisms: Theory, Research, and Assessment. New York, Springer-Verlag.
# Special issue on defense mechanisms. Journal of Personality (1998), 66(6)
# Kernberg, O. (1967). Borderline Personality Organization. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 15:641-685
# Vaillant, G. E. (1977). Adaptation to life. Boston: Little Brown.
# Plutchik, R., Kellerman, H., & Conte, H. R. (1979). A structural theory of ego defenses and emotions. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality and psychopathology (pp. 229–-257). New York: Plenum Press.
# American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
*Fonagy, P. and Target, M. (2003). Psychoanalytic Theories: Perspectives from Developmental Psychopathology. London: Whurr Publishers.
*Freud, A. (1937). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
"The Complete Guide to Social Work". Independent Study for the ASWB exam
*Vaillant, George E. (1977). Adaptation to Life. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co
*Garrett, F. (2002). [http://www.bma-wellness.com/papers/Addiction_Defenses.html Addiction and its Mechanisms of Defense]
*Heffner, C.L. (2001). [http://allpsych.com/psychology101/defenses.html Psychology 101]
*Niolon, R. (1999). [http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/counseling/defenses.html PsychPage: Defenses]
*Stanescu, C. and Morosanu, P. (2005). [http://www.ejop.org/archives/2005/02/neuroticism_ego.html Neuroticism, Ego Defence Mechanisms and Valoric Types: a Correlative Study]
*Tucker-Ladd, C.E. (1996-2000). [http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap5/chap5j.htm Psychological Self-Help]
*Wagner, K., van (2006). [http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/defensemech_5.htm Psychology About]
==External links==
*[http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Defense_mechanism Defence mechanism entry in the new world encyclopaedia]
*[http://www.scribd.com/full/7884281?access_key=key-1ty731jvy8pq4oinn53d Banicki, K. (2007). Defence Mechanisms: Modern Conceptualization and Measurement]
*[http://www.bma-wellness.com/papers/Addiction_Defenses.html Garrett, F. (2002). Addiction and its Mechanisms of Defense.]
*[http://allpsych.com/psychology101/defenses.html Heffner, C.L. (2001). Psychology 101.]
*[http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/counseling/defenses.html Niolon, R. (1999). PsychPage: Defenses.]
*[http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=ijp.049.0049a Schafer, Roy (1968). The Mechanisms of Defence. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 49:49-62. - access requires online subscription]
*[http://www.ejop.org/archives/2005/02/neuroticism_ego.html Stanescu, C. and Morosanu, P. (2005). Neuroticism, Ego Defence Mechanisms and Valoric Types: a Correlative Study.]
*[http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap5/chap5j.htm Tucker-Ladd, C.E. (1996-2000). Psychological Self-Help.]
*[http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/defensemech_5.htm Wagner, K., van (2006). Psychology About.]
[[Category: Psychology]]
'''Defense''' [[mechanisms]] are [[psychological]] strategies brought into play by various entities to cope with [[reality]] and to maintain self-image. [[Health]]y [[persons]] normally use different defences throughout life. An [[ego]] defence mechanism becomes pathological only when its [[persistent]] use leads to maladaptive [[behavior]] such that the [[physical]] and/or [[mental]] health of the [[individual]] is adversely affected. The [[purpose]] of the Ego Defence Mechanisms is to protect the mind/self/ego from [[anxiety]], social sanctions or to provide a refuge from a situation with which one cannot currently cope.[1]
<center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''''Defense'''''(s), follow [http://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Defenses '''''this link'''''].</center>
They are more accurately referred to as ''ego defence mechanisms'', and can thus be categorized as occurring when the id impulses are in conflict with each other, when the id impulses conflict with super-ego [[values]] and [[beliefs]], and when an external threat is posed to the ego.
The term "defence mechanism" is often thought to refer to a definitive singular term for [[personality]] traits which arise due to loss or [[trauma]]tic [[experiences]], but more accurately refers to several types of reactions which were identified during and after daughter Anna Freud's time.
==Structural model: The id, ego, and superego==
The [[concept]] of [[id]] impulses comes from [[Sigmund Freud]]’s structural [[model]]. According to this [[theory]], id impulses are based on the [[pleasure]] principle: instant gratification of one's own [[desires]] and [[needs]]. Sigmund Freud believed that the id represents [[biologic]] [[instinct]]ual impulses in ourselves, such as aggression ([[Thanatos]] or the Death instinct) and [[sexuality]] ([[Eros]] or the Life instinct). For example, when the id impulses (e.g. desire to have [[sexual intercourse|sexual relations]] with a stranger) conflict with the superego (e.g. belief in societal conventions of not having sex with unknown persons), unsatisfied [[feelings]] of [[anxiety]] come to the surface. To reduce these [[negative]] feelings, the ego might use defence mechanisms (conscious or unconscious blockage of the id impulses).
===Definitions of individual psyche structures===
Freud proposed three structures of the psyche or personality:
*Id: a selfish, [[primitive]], childish, [[pleasure]]-oriented part of the [[personality]] with no ability to delay gratification. "The Child".
*Superego: internalized societal and [[parent]]al [[standards]] of "[[good]]" and "[[bad]]", "right" and "wrong" [[behavior]]. "The Parent".
*[[Ego]]: the moderator between the id and superego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as our "Sense of Self." "The Adult".
===Primary and secondary processes===
In the ego, there are two ongoing [[process]]es. First, there is the [[unconscious]] primary process, where the [[thoughts]] are not organized in a coherent way, the [[feelings]] can shift, contradictions are not in conflict or are just not [[perceived]] that way, and condensations arise. There is no [[logic]] and no [[time line]]. [[Lust]] is important for this [[process]]. By contrast, there is the conscious secondary process, where strong boundaries are set and [[thoughts]] must be organized in a coherent way. Most unconscious thoughts originate here.
===The reality principle===
Id impulses are not appropriate in [[civilized]] [[society]], so society presses us to modify the [[pleasure]] principle in favor of the [[reality]] principle; that is, the requirements of the external world.
===Formation of the superego===
The ''superego'' forms as the child grows and learns [[parental]] and [[social]] [[standards]]. The superego consists of two [[structures]]: the [[conscience]], which stores [[information]] about what is "[[bad]]" and what has been punished and the ego [[ideal]], which stores information about what is "[[good]]" and what one "[[obligation|should]]" do or be.
===The ego's use of defense mechanisms===
When [[anxiety]] becomes too overwhelming, it is then the place of the ego to employ ''defense mechanisms'' to protect the [[individual]]. [[Feelings]] of [[guilt]], embarrassmenhttp://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/skins/common/images/button_link.pngt and shame often accompany the feeling of anxiety. In the first definitive book on defense mechanisms, ''The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense'' (1936), [[Anna Freud]] introduced the [[concept]] of signal anxiety; she stated that it was "not directly a conflicted instinctual tension but a signal occurring in the ego of an anticipated instinctual tension". The signaling [[function]] of anxiety is thus seen as a crucial one and biologically adapted to warn the [[organism]] of danger or a threat to its [[equilibrium]]. The anxiety is felt as an increase in [[bodily]] or [[mental]] [[tension]] and the signal that the organism receives in this way allows it the possibility of taking defensive [[action]] towards the perceived danger. Defense mechanisms work by distorting the id impulses into acceptable forms, or by unconscious or conscious blockage of these impulses.
==Categorization of Defence Mechanisms==
===Level 1 Defense Mechanisms===
The [[mechanisms]] on this level, when predominating, almost always are severely pathological. These three defenses, in conjunction, permit one to effectively rearrange external [[experiences]] to eliminate the need to cope with [[reality]]. The pathological users of these mechanisms frequently appear crazy or insane to others. These are the "psychotic" defences, common in overt [[psychosis]]. However, they are found in [[dreams]] and throughout childhood as well.
They include:
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial Denial]: Refusal to accept external [[reality]] because it is too threatening; arguing against an anxiety-provoking stimulus by stating it doesn't exist; resolution of [[emotion]]al conflict and reduction of anxiety by refusing to [[perceive]] or consciously acknowledge the more unpleasant aspects of external reality.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognitive_distortion Distortion]: A gross reshaping of external reality to meet internal [[needs]].
*Delusional Projection: Grossly frank about external reality, usually of a persecutory nature.
===Level 2 Defence Mechanisms===
These [[mechanisms]] are often present in adults and more commonly present in adolescents. These mechanisms lessen di[[stress]] and [[anxiety]] provoked by threatening people or by uncomfortable reality. People who excessively use such defenses are seen as socially undesirable in that they are immature, difficult to deal with and seriously out of [[touch]] with reality. These are the so-called "immature" defenses and overuse almost always leads to serious problems in a person's ability to cope effectively. These defenses are often seen in severe [[depression]] and [[personality]] disorders. In adolescence, the occurrence of all of these defenses is normal.
These include:
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fantasy_(psychology) Fantasy]: Tendency to retreat into fantasy in order to resolve inner and outer conflicts.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_projection Projection]: Projection is a primitive form of [[paranoia]]. Projection also reduces [[anxiety]] by allowing the [[expression]] of the ineffective impulses or [[desires]] without becoming consciously aware of them; attributing one's own unacknowledged unacceptable/unwanted [[thoughts]] and [[emotions]] to another; includes severe [[prejudice]], severe [[jealousy]], hyper-vigilance to external danger, and "injustice collecting". It is shifting one's unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses within oneself onto someone else, such that those same thoughts, feelings, [[beliefs]] and motivations are perceived as being possessed by the other.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somatization Somatization]: The [[transformation]] of [[negative]] feelings towards others into negative feelings toward self, [[pain]], illness, and anxiety.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive-aggressive_behavior Passive aggression]: Aggression towards others expressed indirectly or passively.
*Acting out: Direct [[expression]] of an unconscious wish or impulse in [[action]], without conscious awareness of the [[emotion]] that drives that expressive [[behavior]].
*Idealization: Unconsciously choosing to [[perceive]] another [[individual]] as having more positive qualities than he or she may actually have.[2]
===Level 3 Defence Mechanisms===
These [[mechanisms]] are considered neurotic, but fairly common in adults. Such defenses have short-term advantages in coping, but can often cause long-term problems in [[relationships]], work and in enjoying life when used as one's primary style of coping with the world.
These include:
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Displacement_(psychology) Displacement]: Defence mechanism that shifts [[sexual]] or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable or less threatening target; redirecting [[emotion]] to a safer outlet; separation of emotion from its real object and redirection of the [[intense]] emotion toward someone or something that is less offensive or threatening in order to avoid dealing directly with what is [[fear|frightening]] or threatening. For example, a mother may yell at her child because she is angry with her husband.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology) Dissociation]: Temporary drastic modification of one's [[personal]] [[identity]] or [[character]] to avoid emotional distress; separation or postponement of a feeling that normally would accompany a situation or thought.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_(psychology) Isolation]: Separation of feelings from [[ideas]] and [[events]], for example, describing a [[violence|murder]] with graphic details but without any [[emotion]].
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectualization Intellectualization]: A form of [[isolation]]; concentrating on the [[intellectual]] components of a situation so as to distance oneself from the associated anxiety-provoking emotions; separation of emotion from [[ideas]]; [[thinking]] about wishes in [[formal]], affectively bland terms and not acting on them; avoiding unacceptable emotions by [[focus]]ing on the intellectual aspects (e.g. Isolation, *Rationalization, [[Ritual]], Undoing, Compensation, [[Magic]]al thinking).
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_Formation Reaction Formation]: Converting unconscious wishes or impulses that are perceived to be dangerous into their opposites; [[behavior]] that is completely the opposite of what one really wants or feels; taking the opposite [[belief]] because the true belief causes [[anxiety]]. This defense can work effectively for coping in the short term, but will eventually break down.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological_repression Repression]: [[Process]] of pulling [[thoughts]] into the unconscious and preventing [[pain]]ful or dangerous thoughts from entering [[consciousness]]; seemingly unexplainable [[naivete]], [[memory]] lapse or lack of awareness of one's own situation and condition; the emotion is conscious, but the idea behind it is absent.
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regression_(psychology) Regression]: Temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than handling unacceptable impulses in a more [[mature]] [[manner]].
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalization_(psychology) Rationalization]: Where a person convinces him or herself that no wrong was done and that all is or was all right through faulty and [[false]] [[reason]]ing. An indicator of this defense mechanism can be seen socially as the formulation of convenient excuses.
===Level 4 Defence Mechanisms===
These are commonly found among emotionally [[healthy]] adults and are considered [[mature]], even though many have their [[origins]] in an immature stage of [[growth|development]]. They have been adapted through the years in order to optimize success in life and [[relationships]]. The use of these defenses enhances [[pleasure]] and feelings of control. These defenses help us integrate conflicting emotions and thoughts, while still remaining effective. Those who use these mechanisms are usually considered [[virtue|virtuous]].
They include:
*Altruism: Constructive service to others that brings pleasure and personal satisfaction
*Anticipation: Realistic planning for future discomfort
*[[Humor]]: Overt expression of ideas and feelings (especially those that are unpleasant to focus on or too terrible to talk about) that gives pleasure to others. Humor, which explores the absurdity inherent in any event, enables someone to "call a spade a spade", while "wit" is a form of displacement (see above under Category 3). Wit refers to the serious or distressing in a humorous way, rather than disarming it; the thoughts remain distressing, but they are "skirted round" by witticism.
*Identification: The unconscious modeling of one's self upon another person's character and behavior.
*Introjection: Identifying with some idea or object so deeply that it becomes a part of that person.
*Sublimation: Transformation of negative emotions or instincts into positive actions, behavior, or emotion.
*Suppression: The conscious process of pushing thoughts into the preconscious; the conscious decision to delay paying attention to an emotion or need in order to cope with the present reality; making it possible to later access uncomfortable or distressing emotions while accepting them.
==Other theories and classifications==
The list of defence mechanisms is huge and there is no theoretical [[consensus]] on the number of defence mechanisms. Classifying defence mechanisms according to some of their properties (i.e. underlying mechanisms, similarities or connections with [[personality]]) has been attempted. Different theorists have different categorizations and conceptualizations of defense mechanisms. Large reviews of theories of defence mechanisms are available from Paulhus, Fridhandler and Hayes (1997) and Cramer (1991).[3][4] Also, the Journal of Personality (1998) published a special issue on defense mechanisms.[5]
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_Kernberg Otto Kernberg] (1967) has developed a theory of borderline personality organization of which one consequence may be [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borderline_personality_disorder borderline personality disorder]. His theory is based on ego psychological object relations theory. Borderline personality organization develops when the child cannot integrate positive and negative mental objects together. Kernberg views the use of primitive defense mechanisms as central to this personality organization. Primitive psychological defenses are projection, denial, dissociation or splitting and they are called borderline defence mechanisms. Also, devaluation and projective identification are seen as borderline defences.[6]
In [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Eman_Vaillant George Eman Vaillant's] (1977) categorization, defences form a continuum related to their psychoanalytical developmental level.[7] Vaillant's levels are:
*Level I - psychotic defenses (i.e. psychotic denial, delusional projection)
*Level II - immature defenses (i.e. fantasy, projection, passive aggression, acting out)
*Level III - neurotic defenses (i.e. intellectualization, reaction formation, dissociation, displacement, repression)
*Level IV - mature defenses (i.e. humour, sublimation, suppression, altruism, anticipation)
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Plutchik Robert Plutchik]'s (1979) theory views defences as derivatives of basic emotions. Defence mechanisms in his theory are (in order of placement in circumplex model): reaction formation, denial, repression, regression, compensation, projection, displacement, intellectualization.[8]
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DSM-IV DSM-IV]) published by the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association American Psychiatric Association] (1994) includes a tentative diagnostic axis for defense mechanisms.[9] This classification is largely based on Vaillant's [[hierarchical]] view of defences, but has some modifications. Examples include: denial, fantasy, rationalization, regression, isolation, projection, and displacement.
==References==
# "defense mechanisms -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
# Vaillant, George Eman (1992). [http://books.google.com/books?id=Ny6wkHI9qUcC&pg=PA238&vq=Idealization&dq=Ego+Mechanisms+of+Defense&lr=&source=gbs_search_s&sig=cIOADH7RZa9b4afc1AxxnCO4Q0E&hl=en Ego Mechanisms of Defense: A Guide for Clinicians and Researchers]. American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 238. ISBN 0880484047.
# Paulhus, D.L., Fridhandler B., & Hayes S. (1997). Psychological defense: Contemporary theory and research. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson & S.R. Briggs (Ed.), Handbook of personality psychology (543-579). California: Academic Press.
# Cramer, P. (1991). The Development of Defence Mechanisms: Theory, Research, and Assessment. New York, Springer-Verlag.
# Special issue on defense mechanisms. Journal of Personality (1998), 66(6)
# Kernberg, O. (1967). Borderline Personality Organization. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 15:641-685
# Vaillant, G. E. (1977). Adaptation to life. Boston: Little Brown.
# Plutchik, R., Kellerman, H., & Conte, H. R. (1979). A structural theory of ego defenses and emotions. In C. E. Izard (Ed.), Emotions in personality and psychopathology (pp. 229–-257). New York: Plenum Press.
# American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
*Fonagy, P. and Target, M. (2003). Psychoanalytic Theories: Perspectives from Developmental Psychopathology. London: Whurr Publishers.
*Freud, A. (1937). The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. London: Hogarth Press and Institute of Psycho-Analysis.
"The Complete Guide to Social Work". Independent Study for the ASWB exam
*Vaillant, George E. (1977). Adaptation to Life. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co
*Garrett, F. (2002). [http://www.bma-wellness.com/papers/Addiction_Defenses.html Addiction and its Mechanisms of Defense]
*Heffner, C.L. (2001). [http://allpsych.com/psychology101/defenses.html Psychology 101]
*Niolon, R. (1999). [http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/counseling/defenses.html PsychPage: Defenses]
*Stanescu, C. and Morosanu, P. (2005). [http://www.ejop.org/archives/2005/02/neuroticism_ego.html Neuroticism, Ego Defence Mechanisms and Valoric Types: a Correlative Study]
*Tucker-Ladd, C.E. (1996-2000). [http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap5/chap5j.htm Psychological Self-Help]
*Wagner, K., van (2006). [http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/defensemech_5.htm Psychology About]
==External links==
*[http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Defense_mechanism Defence mechanism entry in the new world encyclopaedia]
*[http://www.scribd.com/full/7884281?access_key=key-1ty731jvy8pq4oinn53d Banicki, K. (2007). Defence Mechanisms: Modern Conceptualization and Measurement]
*[http://www.bma-wellness.com/papers/Addiction_Defenses.html Garrett, F. (2002). Addiction and its Mechanisms of Defense.]
*[http://allpsych.com/psychology101/defenses.html Heffner, C.L. (2001). Psychology 101.]
*[http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/counseling/defenses.html Niolon, R. (1999). PsychPage: Defenses.]
*[http://www.pep-web.org/document.php?id=ijp.049.0049a Schafer, Roy (1968). The Mechanisms of Defence. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 49:49-62. - access requires online subscription]
*[http://www.ejop.org/archives/2005/02/neuroticism_ego.html Stanescu, C. and Morosanu, P. (2005). Neuroticism, Ego Defence Mechanisms and Valoric Types: a Correlative Study.]
*[http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap5/chap5j.htm Tucker-Ladd, C.E. (1996-2000). Psychological Self-Help.]
*[http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/defensemech_5.htm Wagner, K., van (2006). Psychology About.]
[[Category: Psychology]]