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An '''intellectual''' is one who uses his or her [[intellect]] to work, study, reflect, speculate on, or ask and answer questions with regard to a variety of different [[idea]]s.

 

There are, broadly, three modern definitions at work in discussions about intellectuals. First, “intellectuals” as those deeply involved in ideas, books, and the life of the mind. Second, “intellectuals” as a recognizable occupational [[social class|class]] consisting of lecturers, professors, lawyers, doctors, scientists, engineers, etc. Third, “cultural intellectuals” are those of notable expertise in culture and the arts, expertise which allows them some cultural authority, which they then use to speak in public on other matters.

There are, broadly, three modern definitions at work in discussions about intellectuals. First, “intellectuals” as those deeply involved in ideas, books, and the life of the mind. Second, “intellectuals” as a recognizable occupational [[social class|class]] consisting of lecturers, professors, lawyers, doctors, scientists, engineers, etc. Third, “cultural intellectuals” are those of notable expertise in culture and the arts, expertise which allows them some cultural authority, which they then use to speak in public on other matters.

In ancient [[China]] ''literati'' referred to the government officials who formed the ruling class in China for over two thousand years. These '''[[scholar-bureaucrats]]''' were a [[status group]] of educated [[laymen]], not ordained [[priest]]s. They were not a [[hereditary]] group as their position depended on their knowledge of writing and literature. After 200 B.C. the system of selection of candidates was influenced by [[Confucianism]] and established its ethic among the literati. The [[Hundred Flowers Campaign]] in China was largely based on the government's wish for a mobilization of intellectuals; with very sour consequences later.

In ancient [[China]] ''literati'' referred to the government officials who formed the ruling class in China for over two thousand years. These '''[[scholar-bureaucrats]]''' were a [[status group]] of educated [[laymen]], not ordained [[priest]]s. They were not a [[hereditary]] group as their position depended on their knowledge of writing and literature. After 200 B.C. the system of selection of candidates was influenced by [[Confucianism]] and established its ethic among the literati. The [[Hundred Flowers Campaign]] in China was largely based on the government's wish for a mobilization of intellectuals; with very sour consequences later.

== References ==  

== References ==  

* Jennings, Jeremy and Kemp-Welch, Anthony, eds. (1997), ''Intellectuals in Politics: From the Dreyfus Affair to Salman Rushdie''.

* Jennings, Jeremy and Kemp-Welch, Anthony, eds. (1997), ''Intellectuals in Politics: From the Dreyfus Affair to Salman Rushdie''.

*[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]], ''Intellectuals''. Perennial, 1990, ISBN 0-06-091657-5. A highly ideological onslaught discussing [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]], [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Ernest Hemingway|Hemingway]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Edmund Wilson]], [[Victor Gollancz]], [[Lillian Hellman]], [[Cyril Connolly]], [[Norman Mailer]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], [[Kenneth Tynan]], [[Noam Chomsky]], and others

*[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]], ''Intellectuals''. Perennial, 1990, ISBN 0-06-091657-5. A highly ideological onslaught discussing [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]], [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Ernest Hemingway|Hemingway]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Edmund Wilson]], [[Victor Gollancz]], [[Lillian Hellman]], [[Cyril Connolly]], [[Norman Mailer]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], [[Kenneth Tynan]], [[Noam Chomsky]], and others

* Piereson, James, 2006 [http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_the_new_criterion-the_rise_and_fall.htm ''The rise & fall of the intellectual'']  The New Criterion, September 2006   

* Piereson, James, 2006 [https://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/_the_new_criterion-the_rise_and_fall.htm ''The rise & fall of the intellectual'']  The New Criterion, September 2006   

* [[Richard A. Posner|Posner, Richard A.]], 2002,  ''Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-00633-X.

* [[Richard A. Posner|Posner, Richard A.]], 2002,  ''Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline'', Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-00633-X.

== Further reading ==

== Further reading ==

*Kidder, David S., Oppenheim, Noah D., "[[The Intellectual Devotional|The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam Confidently with the Cultured Class"]], 2006. ISBN 1-59486-513-2

*Kidder, David S., Oppenheim, Noah D., "[[The Intellectual Devotional|The Intellectual Devotional: Revive Your Mind, Complete Your Education, and Roam Confidently with the Cultured Class"]], 2006. ISBN 1-59486-513-2

*The vanishing man of letters: Part One, Contemporary Review [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-107897411.html]

*The vanishing man of letters: Part One, Contemporary Review [https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-107897411.html]

*The vanishing man of letters: Part Two Contemporary Review [http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-110266770.html]

*The vanishing man of letters: Part Two Contemporary Review [https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-110266770.html]

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/12172 A Special Supplement: The Responsibility of Intellectuals]  By [[Noam Chomsky]], February 23, 1967

* [https://www.nybooks.com/articles/12172 A Special Supplement: The Responsibility of Intellectuals]  By [https://www.chomsky.info/ Noam Chomsky], February 23, 1967

* [http://home.uchicago.edu/~rposner/TABLE%20II.pdf] Posner's table of 600+ public intellectuals] 105  classified by such variables as sex, professional and disciplinary affiliation, political leaning, media affiliation, Web hits, and scholarly citations.

* Posner's table of 600+ public intellectuals classified by such variables as sex, professional and disciplinary affiliation, political leaning, media affiliation, Web hits, and scholarly citations.[https://home.uchicago.edu/~rposner/TABLE%20II.pdf]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]