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'''Intelligence ''' is a property of [[mind]] that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to [[reason]], [[plan]], [[problem solving|solve problems]], think [[abstraction|abstractly]], comprehend ideas and [[language]], and [[Learning|learn]]. There are several ways to define intelligence. In some cases intelligence may include traits such as [[creativity]], [[personality psychology|personality]], [[character structure|character]], [[knowledge]], or [[wisdom]]. However other psychologists prefer not to include these traits in the definition of intelligence.

[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]][[Image:Humanintelligence.jpg|right|frame]]

== Definitions ==  

== Definitions ==  

At least two major "consensus" definitions of intelligence have been proposed. First, from [[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]], a report of a task force convened by the [[American Psychological Association]] in 1995:

At least two major "consensus" definitions of intelligence have been proposed. First, from [[Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]], a report of a task force convened by the [[American Psychological Association]] in 1995:

:''Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person’s intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen somewhat different definitions.''[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html] APA Task Force Report, "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns"]

:''Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person’s intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen somewhat different definitions.''[https://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html] APA Task Force Report, "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns"]

A second definition of intelligence comes from "[[Mainstream Science on Intelligence]]", which was signed by 52 intelligence researchers in 1994:

A second definition of intelligence comes from "[[Mainstream Science on Intelligence]]", which was signed by 52 intelligence researchers in 1994:

:''a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do''.[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/wsj_main.html] Mainstream Science on Intelligence] reprinted in Gottfredson (1997). ''[[Intelligence (journal)|Intelligence]]'' p. 13

:''a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do''.[https://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/wsj_main.html] Mainstream Science on Intelligence] reprinted in Gottfredson (1997). ''[[Intelligence (journal)|Intelligence]]'' p. 13

== Other definitions ==

== Other definitions ==

== Psychometric approach ==

== Psychometric approach ==

Despite the variety of concepts of intelligence, the most influential approach to understanding intelligence (i.e., with the most supporters and the most published research over the longest period of time) is based on [[psychometric]] testing. Such [[intelligence quotient]] (IQ) tests include the [[Stanford-Binet]], [[Raven's Progressive Matrices]], the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] and the Wechsler-Bellevue.  

Despite the variety of concepts of intelligence, the most influential approach to understanding intelligence (i.e., with the most supporters and the most published research over the longest period of time) is based on [[psychometric]] testing. Such [[intelligence quotient]] (IQ) tests include the [[Stanford-Binet]], [[Raven's Progressive Matrices]], the [[Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale]] and the Wechsler-Bellevue.  

== Controversies ==

== Controversies ==

IQ tests were originally devised specifically to predict educational achievement. The inventors of the IQ did not believe they were measuring fixed intelligence. Despite this, critics argue that intelligence tests have been used to support nativistic theories in which intelligence is viewed as a qualitatively unique faculty with a relatively fixed quantity.<ref>[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5001903843 The myth of intelligence.] The Psychological Record, Vol. 53, 2003

IQ tests were originally devised specifically to predict educational achievement. The inventors of the IQ did not believe they were measuring fixed intelligence. Despite this, critics argue that intelligence tests have been used to support nativistic theories in which intelligence is viewed as a qualitatively unique faculty with a relatively fixed quantity.<ref>[https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&se=gglsc&d=5001903843 The myth of intelligence.] The Psychological Record, Vol. 53, 2003

Critics of the psychometric approach point out that people in the general population have a somewhat different and broader conception of intelligence than what is measured in IQ tests. In turn, they argue that the psychometric approach measures only a part of what is commonly understood as intelligence. Furthermore, skeptics argue that even though tests of mental abilities are correlated, people still have unique strengths and weaknesses in specific areas. Consequently they argue that psychometric theorists over-emphasize ''g''.

Critics of the psychometric approach point out that people in the general population have a somewhat different and broader conception of intelligence than what is measured in IQ tests. In turn, they argue that the psychometric approach measures only a part of what is commonly understood as intelligence. Furthermore, skeptics argue that even though tests of mental abilities are correlated, people still have unique strengths and weaknesses in specific areas. Consequently they argue that psychometric theorists over-emphasize ''g''.

Researchers in the field of human intelligence have encountered a considerable amount of public concern and criticism-- much more than scientists in other areas normally receive (see [[Linda Gottfredson|Gottfredson]], 2005). For example, a number of critics have challenged the relevance of psychometric intelligence in the context of everyday life. There have also been controversies over genetic factors in intelligence, particularly the question of whether these differences relate to race and gender (see [[Race and intelligence]] and [[Sex and intelligence]]). Another controversy in the field is how to interpret the increases in test scores that have occurred over time, the so-called [[Flynn effect]].  

Researchers in the field of human intelligence have encountered a considerable amount of public concern and criticism-- much more than scientists in other areas normally receive (see [[Linda Gottfredson|Gottfredson]], 2005). For example, a number of critics have challenged the relevance of psychometric intelligence in the context of everyday life. There have also been controversies over genetic factors in intelligence, particularly the question of whether these differences relate to race and gender (see [[Race and intelligence]] and [[Sex and intelligence]]). Another controversy in the field is how to interpret the increases in test scores that have occurred over time, the so-called [[Flynn effect]].  

[[Stephen Jay Gould]] was one of the most vocal critics of intelligence testing. In his book, ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', Gould argued that intelligence is not truly measurable, and also challenged the [[hereditarian]] viewpoint on intelligence. Many of Gould's criticisms were aimed at [[Arthur Jensen]]. Jensen responded that his work had been misrepresented.<ref>[http://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html Jensen, A. (1982). The debunking of scientific fossils and straw persons]</ref> He further replied that making conclusions about modern IQ tests by criticizing the flaws of early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the [[Model T]].

[[Stephen Jay Gould]] was one of the most vocal critics of intelligence testing. In his book, ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', Gould argued that intelligence is not truly measurable, and also challenged the [[hereditarian]] viewpoint on intelligence. Many of Gould's criticisms were aimed at [[Arthur Jensen]]. Jensen responded that his work had been misrepresented.<ref>[https://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html Jensen, A. (1982). The debunking of scientific fossils and straw persons]</ref> He further replied that making conclusions about modern IQ tests by criticizing the flaws of early intelligence research is like condemning the auto industry by criticizing the performance of the [[Model T]].

== Multiple intelligences ==

== Multiple intelligences ==

Dissatisfaction with traditional IQ tests has led to the development of a number of alternative theories, all of which suggest that intelligence is the result of a number of independent abilities that uniquely contribute to human performance. Most of these theories are relatively recent in origin, though it should be noted that [[Louis Thurstone]] proposed a theory of multiple "primary abilities" in the early 20th Century.

Dissatisfaction with traditional IQ tests has led to the development of a number of alternative theories, all of which suggest that intelligence is the result of a number of independent abilities that uniquely contribute to human performance. Most of these theories are relatively recent in origin, though it should be noted that [[Louis Thurstone]] proposed a theory of multiple "primary abilities" in the early 20th Century.

== Other species ==

== Other species ==

Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as mathematical and language abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it means the same thing across species, and then [[operational definition|operationalizing]] a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.

Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular species, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as mathematical and language abilities. Some challenges in this area are defining intelligence so that it means the same thing across species, and then [[operational definition|operationalizing]] a measure that accurately compares mental ability across different species and contexts.

[[Wolfgang Köhler|Wolfgang Köhler's]] pioneering research on the intelligence of apes is a classic example of research in this area. Stanley Coren's book, ''[[The Intelligence of Dogs]]'' is a notable popular book on the topic.

[[Wolfgang Köhler|Wolfgang Köhler's]] pioneering research on the intelligence of apes is a classic example of research in this area. Stanley Coren's book, ''[[The Intelligence of Dogs]]'' is a notable popular book on the topic.

 

==See also==

 

*'''''[[Intelligence Officer]]'''''

== See also ==

 

* [[Systems intelligence]]

 

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

*Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.

*Carroll, J. B. (1993). Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.

*Gardner, H., Kornhaber, M. and Wake, W. (1996).  Intelligence: Multiple Perspectives.  Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

*Gardner, H., Kornhaber, M. and Wake, W. (1996).  Intelligence: Multiple Perspectives.  Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

*[[Linda Gottfredson|Gottfredson, L. S.]] (Ed.) (1997). Intelligence and social policy. ''Intelligence'', [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997mainstream.pdf]

*[[Linda Gottfredson|Gottfredson, L. S.]] (Ed.) (1997). Intelligence and social policy. ''Intelligence'', [https://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997mainstream.pdf]

*Gottfredson, L. S. (1998).  The general intelligence factor. ''Scientific American Presents,'' 9(4):24-29. {{PDFlink|[http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf]

*Gottfredson, L. S. (1998).  The general intelligence factor. ''Scientific American Presents,'' 9(4):24-29. {{PDFlink|[https://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf]

*Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Suppressing intelligence research: Hurting those we intend to help. In R. H. Wright & N. A. Cummings (Eds.), Destructive trends in mental health: The well-intentioned path to harm (pp. 155-186). New York: Taylor and Francis. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2003suppressingintelligence.pdf] [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2005suppressingintelligence.pdf]  

*Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Suppressing intelligence research: Hurting those we intend to help. In R. H. Wright & N. A. Cummings (Eds.), Destructive trends in mental health: The well-intentioned path to harm (pp. 155-186). New York: Taylor and Francis. [https://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2003suppressingintelligence.pdf] [https://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2005suppressingintelligence.pdf]  

* [[Jeff Hawkins|Hawkings, Jeff]] (2005). ''On intelligence'', Times Books, Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 0-8050-7456-2

* [[Jeff Hawkins|Hawkings, Jeff]] (2005). ''On intelligence'', Times Books, Henry Holt and Co. ISBN 0-8050-7456-2

*Hunter, J.E. and Hunter, R.F. (1984).  Validity and utility of alternate predictors of job performance.  ''Psychological Bulletin,'' 96(1):72-98.

*Hunter, J.E. and Hunter, R.F. (1984).  Validity and utility of alternate predictors of job performance.  ''Psychological Bulletin,'' 96(1):72-98.

*Kline, P. (2000). ''A Psychometrics Primer''. London: Free Association Books.  

*Kline, P. (2000). ''A Psychometrics Primer''. London: Free Association Books.  

*McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., Ahern, F., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (1997). Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science, 276, 1560-1563.

*McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., Ahern, F., Petrill, S. A., & Plomin, R. (1997). Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science, 276, 1560-1563.

* Michael A. McDaniel, Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence, Intelligence, Volume 33, Issue 4, July-August 2005, Pages 337-346. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W4M-4FG4VBP-1/2/55c9e0f9f5aa037e893e726d6c60e5a8]

* Michael A. McDaniel, Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence, Intelligence, Volume 33, Issue 4, July-August 2005, Pages 337-346. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6W4M-4FG4VBP-1/2/55c9e0f9f5aa037e893e726d6c60e5a8]

*[[Charles Murray]] (1998). Income Inequality and IQ, AEI Press  

*[[Charles Murray]] (1998). Income Inequality and IQ, AEI Press  

*Noguera, P.A. (2001).  Racial politics and the elusive quest for excellence and equity in education.  [https://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er/pnrp1.html In Motion Magazine article]

*Noguera, P.A. (2001).  Racial politics and the elusive quest for excellence and equity in education.  [http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er/pnrp1.html In Motion Magazine article]

*R. Plomin, J. C. DeFries, G. E. McClearn, M. Rutter, ''Behavioral Genetics'' (Freeman, New York, ed. 3, 1997).

*R. Plomin, J. C. DeFries, G. E. McClearn, M. Rutter, ''Behavioral Genetics'' (Freeman, New York, ed. 3, 1997).

*Snow, R. E., Kyllonen, P. C., & Marshalek, B. (1984). The topography of ability and learning correlations. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, Volume 2, (47-103). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

*Snow, R. E., Kyllonen, P. C., & Marshalek, B. (1984). The topography of ability and learning correlations. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, Volume 2, (47-103). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

* Terman, L. (1916). [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Terman/terman1.htm The Uses of Intelligence Tests.]

* Terman, L. (1916). [https://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Terman/terman1.htm The Uses of Intelligence Tests.]

== External links ==

== External links ==

* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041130090438/http://www.apa.org/releases/intell.html Press Release: APA Task Force Examines the Knowns and Unknowns of Intelligence]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041130090438/https://www.apa.org/releases/intell.html Press Release: APA Task Force Examines the Knowns and Unknowns of Intelligence]

* [http://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/intell/mainstream.html The Wall Street Journal: Mainstream Science on Intelligence]{{PDFlink|[http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997mainstream.pdf]|798&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 817913 bytes -->}} (submitted editorial)

* [https://www.psychpage.com/learning/library/intell/mainstream.html The Wall Street Journal: Mainstream Science on Intelligence][https://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997mainstream.pdf]|

*[http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/paik.html One Intelligence or Many? Alternative Approaches to Cognitive Abilities]

*[https://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/paik.html One Intelligence or Many? Alternative Approaches to Cognitive Abilities]

*[http://www.abelard.org/statistics.htm Intelligence: misuse and abuse of statistics]

*[https://www.abelard.org/statistics.htm Intelligence: misuse and abuse of statistics]

* [http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998a.html IQ Since "The Bell Curve" by Christopher F. Chabris]

* [https://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998a.html IQ Since "The Bell Curve" by Christopher F. Chabris]

* [http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998b.html Does IQ Matter? Christopher F. Chabris & critics]

* [https://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~cfc/Chabris1998b.html Does IQ Matter? Christopher F. Chabris & critics]

*[http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/24538/page/1 The cognitive-psychology approach vs. psychometric approach to intelligence]

*[https://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/24538/page/1 The cognitive-psychology approach vs. psychometric approach to intelligence]

* [http://intelligencetesting.blogspot.com/ Dr. McGrew's Intelligence Blog]

* [https://intelligencetesting.blogspot.com/ Dr. McGrew's Intelligence Blog]

* [http://www.iqte.st/intelligencetestingquotes/index.html Intelligence quotations]

* [https://www.iqte.st/intelligencetestingquotes/index.html Intelligence quotations]

* [http://www.rkliedtke.de/relative_intelligence.html A theoretical model of biological intelligence]

* [https://www.rkliedtke.de/relative_intelligence.html A theoretical model of biological intelligence]

*[http://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/map.shtml History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing]

*[https://www.indiana.edu/%7Eintell/map.shtml History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing]

'''Scholarly journals and societies'''

'''Scholarly journals and societies'''

*[http://www.elsevier.com/locate/intell The Journal Intelligence]

*[https://www.elsevier.com/locate/intell The Journal Intelligence]

*[http://www.isironline.org/ International Society for Intelligence Research]

*[https://www.isironline.org/ International Society for Intelligence Research]

*[http://arxiv.org/abs/0706.3639v1 - A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence]

*[https://arxiv.org/abs/0706.3639v1 - A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]