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Enormous [[debate]] in Western societies has [[focus]]ed on perceived social, [[intellectual]], or [[emotional]] [[differences]] between women and men. These differences are very difficult to [[quantify]] for both [[scientific]] and [[political]] reasons, though they tend to have a high expectancy for men.
'''Masculinity''' has its roots in [[genetics]] (see [[gender]]).[3][4] Therefore while masculinity looks different in different [[cultures]], there are common aspects to its definition across cultures.[5] Sometimes gender scholars will use the phrase "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemony hegemonic] masculinity" to distinguish the most dominant form of masculinity from other variants. In the mid-twentieth century United States, for example, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wayne John Wayne] might [[embody]] one form of masculinity, while [[Albert Einstein]] might be seen as masculine, but not in the same "hegemonic" [[fashion]].
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machismo Machismo] is a form of masculine [[culture]]. It includes assertiveness or standing up for one's rights, responsibility, selflessness, general code of [[ethics]], [[sincerity]], and [[respect]].[6]
[[Anthropology]] has shown that masculinity itself has [[social status]], just like [[wealth]], [[race]] and social class. In western [[culture]], for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status. Many [[English]] [[words]] such as [[virtue]] and virile (from the [[Latin]] and [[Sanskrit]] roots vir meaning man) [[reflect]] this.[7][8] An association with [[physical]] and/or [[moral]] [[strength]] is implied. Masculinity is associated more commonly with adult men than with boys.
A great deal is now known about the development of masculine characteristics. The [[process]] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_differentiation sexual differentiation] specific to the reproductive system of Homo sapiens produces a female by default. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRY_gene SRY gene] on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_chromosome Y chromosome], however, interferes with the default process, causing a chain of [[events]] that, all things being equal, leads to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testes testes] formation, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen androgen] production and a range of both natal and post-natal hormonal effects covered by the terms masculinization or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virilization virilization]. Because masculinization redirects [[biological]] [[processes]] from the default female route, it is more precisely called defeminization.
There is an extensive [[debate]] about how children develop [[gender]] identities.
In many cultures displaying characteristics not typical to one's [[gender]] may become a social problem for the [[individual]]. Among men, some non-[[standard]] [[behaviors]] may be considered a sign of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality homosexuality], while a girl who exhibits masculine behavior is more frequently dismissed as a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomboy "tomboy"]. Within [[sociology]] such labeling and conditioning is known as gender assumptions and is a part of socialization to better match a culture's [[mores]]. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in terms such as "machismo" or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone_poisoning "testosterone poisoning."]
The [[relative]] importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning obviously plays a role, it can also be observed that certain aspects of the masculine [[identity]] exist in almost all [[human]] [[cultures]].
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral [[genetics]], evolutionary [[psychology]], human [[ecology]] and [[sociobiology]]. All human cultures seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through [[literature]], costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of [[Homer]], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur King Arthur] tales in [[English]], the normative commentaries of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius Confucius] or biographical studies of the [[prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the [[Bhagavad Gita]] or bushido's Hagakure.
==Characteristics==
Janet Saltzman Chafetz (1974, 35-36) describes seven areas of masculinity in general culture:
# [[Physical]] — virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and aging;
# [[Functional]] — provider for [[family]], defender of family from [[physical]] threat;
# [[Sexual]] — [[sexually]] aggressive, [[experienced]]. Single status acceptable;
# [[Emotional]] — unemotional, stoic, never crying;
# [[Intellectual]] — [[logical]], intellectual, [[rational]], objective, [[practical]];
# Interpersonal — [[leader]], dominating; disciplinarian; independent, free, [[individualistic]]; demanding;
# Other Personal Characteristics — success-oriented, [[ambitious]], aggressive, competitive, proud, egotistical, [[moral]], trustworthy; decisive, uninhibited, [[adventurous]].
A number of the above stereotypes were not perceived in the same way as today (i.e., their applications to particular aspects and [[spheres]] of life, such as [[work]] vs. [[home]]) until the 19th century, beginning with industrialization.
[[Category: Sociology]]
Enormous [[debate]] in Western societies has [[focus]]ed on perceived social, [[intellectual]], or [[emotional]] [[differences]] between women and men. These differences are very difficult to [[quantify]] for both [[scientific]] and [[political]] reasons, though they tend to have a high expectancy for men.
'''Masculinity''' has its roots in [[genetics]] (see [[gender]]).[3][4] Therefore while masculinity looks different in different [[cultures]], there are common aspects to its definition across cultures.[5] Sometimes gender scholars will use the phrase "[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegemony hegemonic] masculinity" to distinguish the most dominant form of masculinity from other variants. In the mid-twentieth century United States, for example, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wayne John Wayne] might [[embody]] one form of masculinity, while [[Albert Einstein]] might be seen as masculine, but not in the same "hegemonic" [[fashion]].
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machismo Machismo] is a form of masculine [[culture]]. It includes assertiveness or standing up for one's rights, responsibility, selflessness, general code of [[ethics]], [[sincerity]], and [[respect]].[6]
[[Anthropology]] has shown that masculinity itself has [[social status]], just like [[wealth]], [[race]] and social class. In western [[culture]], for example, greater masculinity usually brings greater social status. Many [[English]] [[words]] such as [[virtue]] and virile (from the [[Latin]] and [[Sanskrit]] roots vir meaning man) [[reflect]] this.[7][8] An association with [[physical]] and/or [[moral]] [[strength]] is implied. Masculinity is associated more commonly with adult men than with boys.
A great deal is now known about the development of masculine characteristics. The [[process]] of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_differentiation sexual differentiation] specific to the reproductive system of Homo sapiens produces a female by default. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRY_gene SRY gene] on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_chromosome Y chromosome], however, interferes with the default process, causing a chain of [[events]] that, all things being equal, leads to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testes testes] formation, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen androgen] production and a range of both natal and post-natal hormonal effects covered by the terms masculinization or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virilization virilization]. Because masculinization redirects [[biological]] [[processes]] from the default female route, it is more precisely called defeminization.
There is an extensive [[debate]] about how children develop [[gender]] identities.
In many cultures displaying characteristics not typical to one's [[gender]] may become a social problem for the [[individual]]. Among men, some non-[[standard]] [[behaviors]] may be considered a sign of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality homosexuality], while a girl who exhibits masculine behavior is more frequently dismissed as a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomboy "tomboy"]. Within [[sociology]] such labeling and conditioning is known as gender assumptions and is a part of socialization to better match a culture's [[mores]]. The corresponding social condemnation of excessive masculinity may be expressed in terms such as "machismo" or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosterone_poisoning "testosterone poisoning."]
The [[relative]] importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to be debated. While social conditioning obviously plays a role, it can also be observed that certain aspects of the masculine [[identity]] exist in almost all [[human]] [[cultures]].
The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral [[genetics]], evolutionary [[psychology]], human [[ecology]] and [[sociobiology]]. All human cultures seem to encourage the development of gender roles, through [[literature]], costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of [[Homer]], the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Arthur King Arthur] tales in [[English]], the normative commentaries of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confucius Confucius] or biographical studies of the [[prophet]] [[Muhammad]]. More specialized treatments of masculinity may be found in works such as the [[Bhagavad Gita]] or bushido's Hagakure.
==Characteristics==
Janet Saltzman Chafetz (1974, 35-36) describes seven areas of masculinity in general culture:
# [[Physical]] — virile, athletic, strong, brave. Unconcerned about appearance and aging;
# [[Functional]] — provider for [[family]], defender of family from [[physical]] threat;
# [[Sexual]] — [[sexually]] aggressive, [[experienced]]. Single status acceptable;
# [[Emotional]] — unemotional, stoic, never crying;
# [[Intellectual]] — [[logical]], intellectual, [[rational]], objective, [[practical]];
# Interpersonal — [[leader]], dominating; disciplinarian; independent, free, [[individualistic]]; demanding;
# Other Personal Characteristics — success-oriented, [[ambitious]], aggressive, competitive, proud, egotistical, [[moral]], trustworthy; decisive, uninhibited, [[adventurous]].
A number of the above stereotypes were not perceived in the same way as today (i.e., their applications to particular aspects and [[spheres]] of life, such as [[work]] vs. [[home]]) until the 19th century, beginning with industrialization.
[[Category: Sociology]]