Changes

===Superorganism===

===Superorganism===

A [[Superuniverse|superorganism]] is an organism consisting of many [[individual]]s working together as a single functional or social unit. Ants, and other eusocial invertebrates such as termites, are examples of superorganisms that form large colonies of individuals with highly specialised roles and [[division of labor]].  Individuals may be unable to reproduce or to survive for extended periods of time when separated from the colony. By working cooperatively, superorganisms can achieve feats that comparable solitary organisms cannot. Thermoregulation, for example, does not occur in individuals or small groups of honeybees or other invertebrates, but colonies of bees with more than about 5000 individuals can thermoregulate.[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImageURL&_imagekey=B6T2P-4867WXH-110-2&_cdi=4924&_user=4385511&_check=y&_orig=search&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1983&_qd=1&view=c&wchp=dGLbVlz-zSkWW&md5=d23bd1cec870de7f5a44f8a2f367ed9c&ie=/sdarticle.pdf]

A [[Superuniverse|superorganism]] is an organism consisting of many [[individual]]s working together as a single functional or social unit. Ants, and other eusocial invertebrates such as termites, are examples of superorganisms that form large colonies of individuals with highly specialised roles and [[division of labor]].  Individuals may be unable to reproduce or to survive for extended periods of time when separated from the colony. By working cooperatively, superorganisms can achieve feats that comparable solitary organisms cannot. Thermoregulation, for example, does not occur in individuals or small groups of honeybees or other invertebrates, but colonies of bees with more than about 5000 individuals can thermoregulate.[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImageURL&_imagekey=B6T2P-4867WXH-110-2&_cdi=4924&_user=4385511&_check=y&_orig=search&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1983&_qd=1&view=c&wchp=dGLbVlz-zSkWW&md5=d23bd1cec870de7f5a44f8a2f367ed9c&ie=/sdarticle.pdf]

[[James Lovelock]], with his "[[Gaia Theory]]" has paralleled the work of [[Vladimir Vernadsky]], who suggested the whole of the [[biosphere]] in some respects can be considered as a superorganism.

[[James Lovelock]], with his "[[Gaia Theory]]" has paralleled the work of [[Vladimir Vernadsky]], who suggested the whole of the [[biosphere]] in some respects can be considered as a superorganism.

It would appear, from computer [[simulation]]s like Daisyworld that biological selection occurs at multiple levels simultaneously.

It would appear, from computer [[simulation]]s like Daisyworld that biological selection occurs at multiple levels simultaneously.

It is also argued that humans are actually a superorganism that includes microorganisms such as [[bacteria]]. It is estimated that "the human intestinal microbiota is composed of 10x13th  to 10x14th microorganisms whose collective [[genome]] ("microbiome") contains at least 100 times as many genes as our own[...] Our microbiome has significantly enriched metabolism of glycans, amino acids, and xenobiotics; methanogenesis; and 2-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate pathway–mediated biosynthesis of vitamins and isoprenoids. Thus, humans are superorganisms whose metabolism represents an amalgamation of microbial and human attributes." [http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1124234]. An [[NIH]]-coordinated and -funded effort is currently in progress to characterize the [[Human microbiome project|human microbiome]].[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism]

It is also argued that humans are actually a superorganism that includes microorganisms such as [[bacteria]]. It is estimated that "the human intestinal microbiota is composed of 10x13th  to 10x14th microorganisms whose collective [[genome]] ("microbiome") contains at least 100 times as many genes as our own[...] Our microbiome has significantly enriched metabolism of glycans, amino acids, and xenobiotics; methanogenesis; and 2-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate pathway–mediated biosynthesis of vitamins and isoprenoids. Thus, humans are superorganisms whose metabolism represents an amalgamation of microbial and human attributes." [https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1124234]. An [[NIH]]-coordinated and -funded effort is currently in progress to characterize the [[Human microbiome project|human microbiome]].[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism]

==See also==

==See also==

*'''''[[116:7 The Living Organism of the Grand Universe|The Living Organism of the Grand Universe]]'''''

*'''''[[116:7 The Living Organism of the Grand Universe|The Living Organism of the Grand Universe]]'''''

# "organism". Oxford English Dictionary (online ed.). 2004.  

# "organism". Oxford English Dictionary (online ed.). 2004.  

# "organism". Chambers 21st Century Dictionary (online ed.). 1999.  

# "organism". Chambers 21st Century Dictionary (online ed.). 1999.  

# Southwick, Edward E. (1983). "The honey bee cluster as a homeothermic superorganism" (PDF). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 75A (4): 741–745. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(83)90434-6. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImageURL&_imagekey=B6T2P-4867WXH-110-2&_cdi=4924&_user=4385511&_check=y&_orig=search&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1983&_qd=1&view=c&wchp=dGLbVlz-zSkWW&md5=d23bd1cec870de7f5a44f8a2f367ed9c&ie=/sdarticle.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-07-20.  

# Southwick, Edward E. (1983). "The honey bee cluster as a homeothermic superorganism" (PDF). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology 75A (4): 741–745. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(83)90434-6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImageURL&_imagekey=B6T2P-4867WXH-110-2&_cdi=4924&_user=4385511&_check=y&_orig=search&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1983&_qd=1&view=c&wchp=dGLbVlz-zSkWW&md5=d23bd1cec870de7f5a44f8a2f367ed9c&ie=/sdarticle.pdf. Retrieved on 2006-07-20.  

# Gill S. R., et al. Science, 312, 1355-1359 (2006). http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1124234

# Gill S. R., et al. Science, 312, 1355-1359 (2006). https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1124234

# The Universal Features of Cells on Earth in Chapter 1 of Molecular Biology of the Cell fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science.

# The Universal Features of Cells on Earth in Chapter 1 of Molecular Biology of the Cell fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science.

# Doolittle, W. Ford (February, 2000). Uprooting the tree of life. Scientific American 282 (6): 90–95.

# Doolittle, W. Ford (February, 2000). Uprooting the tree of life. Scientific American 282 (6): 90–95.

# Oklahoma State - Horizontal Gene Transfer

# Oklahoma State - Horizontal Gene Transfer

# esalenctr.org

# esalenctr.org

# Gibsona, Daniel G., Gwynedd A. Benders, Kevin C. Axelroda, Jayshree Zaveria, Mikkel A. Algirea, Monzia Moodiea, Michael G. Montaguea, J. Craig Ventera, Hamilton O. Smith, and Clyde A. Hutchison III (2008). "One-step assembly in yeast of 25 overlapping DNA fragments to form a complete synthetic Mycoplasma genitalium genome". PNAS 105 (51): 20404-20409. http://www.pnas.org/content/105/51/20404.full.pdf.

# Gibsona, Daniel G., Gwynedd A. Benders, Kevin C. Axelroda, Jayshree Zaveria, Mikkel A. Algirea, Monzia Moodiea, Michael G. Montaguea, J. Craig Ventera, Hamilton O. Smith, and Clyde A. Hutchison III (2008). "One-step assembly in yeast of 25 overlapping DNA fragments to form a complete synthetic Mycoplasma genitalium genome". PNAS 105 (51): 20404-20409. https://www.pnas.org/content/105/51/20404.full.pdf.

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/944790.stm BBCNews: 27 September, 2000, When slime is not so thick] Citat: "It means that some of the lowliest creatures in the plant and animal kingdoms, such as slime and amoeba, may not be as primitive as once thought"

* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/944790.stm BBCNews: 27 September, 2000, When slime is not so thick] Citat: "It means that some of the lowliest creatures in the plant and animal kingdoms, such as slime and amoeba, may not be as primitive as once thought"

** [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=4742 SpaceRef.com, July 29, 1997: Scientists Discover Methane Ice Worms On Gulf Of Mexico Sea Floor]

** [https://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=4742 SpaceRef.com, July 29, 1997: Scientists Discover Methane Ice Worms On Gulf Of Mexico Sea Floor]

*** [http://www.science.psu.edu/iceworms/iceworms.html The Eberly College of Science: Methane Ice Worms discovered on Gulf of Mexico Sea Floor] download Publication quality photos

*** [https://www.science.psu.edu/iceworms/iceworms.html The Eberly College of Science: Methane Ice Worms discovered on Gulf of Mexico Sea Floor] download Publication quality photos

** [http://www.sb-roscoff.fr/Ecophy/PDF/00-Fisher-NatWis.pdf Artikel, 2000: Methane Ice Worms: Hesiocaeca methanicola. Colonizing Fossil Fuel Reserves]

** [https://www.sb-roscoff.fr/Ecophy/PDF/00-Fisher-NatWis.pdf Artikel, 2000: Methane Ice Worms: Hesiocaeca methanicola. Colonizing Fossil Fuel Reserves]

** [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=339 SpaceRef.com, May 04, 2001: Redefining "Life as We Know it"] ''Hesiocaeca methanicola'' In 1997, Charles Fisher, professor of biology at Penn State, discovered this remarkable creature living on mounds of methane ice under half a mile of ocean on the floor of the Gulf of Mexico.

** [https://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=339 SpaceRef.com, May 04, 2001: Redefining "Life as We Know it"] ''Hesiocaeca methanicola'' In 1997, Charles Fisher, professor of biology at Penn State, discovered this remarkable creature living on mounds of methane ice under half a mile of ocean on the floor of the Gulf of Mexico.

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2585235.stm BBCNews, 18 December, 2002, 'Space bugs' grown in lab] Citat: "''Bacillus simplex'' and ''Staphylococcus pasteuri''...''Engyodontium album'' The strains cultured by Dr Wainwright seemed to be resistant to the effects of UV - one quality required for survival in space"

* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2585235.stm BBCNews, 18 December, 2002, 'Space bugs' grown in lab] Citat: "''Bacillus simplex'' and ''Staphylococcus pasteuri''...''Engyodontium album'' The strains cultured by Dr Wainwright seemed to be resistant to the effects of UV - one quality required for survival in space"

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3003946.stm BBCNews, 19 June, 2003, Ancient organism challenges cell evolution] Citat: "It appears that this organelle has been conserved in evolution from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, since it is present in both"

* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3003946.stm BBCNews, 19 June, 2003, Ancient organism challenges cell evolution] Citat: "It appears that this organelle has been conserved in evolution from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, since it is present in both"

* [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/bi04syllabsu03.html Interactive Syllabus for General Biology - BI 04, Saint Anselm College, Summer 2003]

* [https://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/bi04syllabsu03.html Interactive Syllabus for General Biology - BI 04, Saint Anselm College, Summer 2003]

* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/j/s/jsf165/Bio110.html Jacob Feldman: Stramenopila]

* [https://www.personal.psu.edu/users/j/s/jsf165/Bio110.html Jacob Feldman: Stramenopila]

* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Root NCBI Taxonomy entry: root] (rich)

* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Root NCBI Taxonomy entry: root] (rich)

* [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/surveybi04.html Saint Anselm College: Survey of representatives of the major Kingdoms] Citat: "Number of kingdoms has not been resolved...Bacteria present a problem with their diversity...[[Protista]] present a problem with their diversity...",

* [https://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/surveybi04.html Saint Anselm College: Survey of representatives of the major Kingdoms] Citat: "Number of kingdoms has not been resolved...Bacteria present a problem with their diversity...[[Protista]] present a problem with their diversity...",

* [http://www.species2000.org/ Species 2000 Indexing the world's known species]. Species 2000 has the objective of enumerating all known species of plants, animals, fungi and microbes on Earth as the baseline dataset for studies of global biodiversity. It will also provide a simple access point enabling users to link from here to other data systems for all groups of organisms, using direct species-links.

* [https://www.species2000.org/ Species 2000 Indexing the world's known species]. Species 2000 has the objective of enumerating all known species of plants, animals, fungi and microbes on Earth as the baseline dataset for studies of global biodiversity. It will also provide a simple access point enabling users to link from here to other data systems for all groups of organisms, using direct species-links.

* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_828525.htm The largest organism in the world may be a fungus carpeting nearly 10 square kilometers of an Oregon forest, and may be as old as 10500 years.]

* [https://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_828525.htm The largest organism in the world may be a fungus carpeting nearly 10 square kilometers of an Oregon forest, and may be as old as 10500 years.]

* [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life].

* [https://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life].

*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/1016/Life-from-birth-to-death/ Frequent questions from kids about life and their answers]

*[https://www.scribd.com/doc/1016/Life-from-birth-to-death/ Frequent questions from kids about life and their answers]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Biology]]

[[Category: Biology]]