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===Fraud===
===Fraud===
There have been instances of [[fraud]] in the history of parapsychology research. The Soal-Goldney experiments of 1941–43 (suggesting precognitive ability in subjects) were long regarded as some of the best in the field because they relied upon independent checking and witnesses to prevent fraud. However, many years later, suspicions of fraud were confirmed when statistical evidence, uncovered and published by other parapsychologists in the field, indicated that Dr. Soal had cheated by altering the raw data.<ref name=Alcock81/><ref name=Haskell>
There have been instances of [[fraud]] in the history of parapsychology research. The Soal-Goldney experiments of 1941–43 (suggesting precognitive ability in subjects) were long regarded as some of the best in the field because they relied upon independent checking and witnesses to prevent fraud. However, many years later, suspicions of fraud were confirmed when statistical evidence, uncovered and published by other parapsychologists in the field, indicated that Dr. Soal had cheated by altering the raw data.("Normal" Explanation of the Soal-Goldney Experiments in Extrasensory Perception [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973Natur.245...52S]|doi=10.1038/245052a0 The Soal-Goldney experiments with Basil Shackleton: new evidence of data manipulation (Proc Soc Psychical Res |v.56 |pps. 250–277)
Walter J. Levy, director of the Institute for Parapsychology, reported on a series of successful ESP experiments involving computer-controlled manipulation of non-human subjects, including eggs and rats. His experiments showed very high positive results. Because the subjects were non-human, and because the experimental environment was mostly automated, his successful experiments avoided criticism concerning experimenter effects, and removed the question of the subject's belief as an influence on the outcome. However, Levy's fellow researchers became suspicious about his methods. They found that Levy interfered with data-recording equipment, manually creating fraudulent strings of positive results. Rhine fired Levy and reported the fraud in a number of articles.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rhine, J.B |title=A new case of experimenter unreliability |journal=Journal of Parapsychology |volume=38 |pages=137–153 |year=1974}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bauer, E |title=Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology – An Overview |journal=European Journal of Parapsychology |volume=5 |pages=141–166 |year=1984 |url=http://www.psy.gu.se/EJP/EJP1984Bauer.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>
Walter J. Levy, director of the Institute for Parapsychology, reported on a series of successful ESP experiments involving computer-controlled manipulation of non-human subjects, including eggs and rats. His experiments showed very high positive results. Because the subjects were non-human, and because the experimental environment was mostly automated, his successful experiments avoided criticism concerning experimenter effects, and removed the question of the subject's belief as an influence on the outcome. However, Levy's fellow researchers became suspicious about his methods. They found that Levy interfered with data-recording equipment, manually creating fraudulent strings of positive results. Rhine fired Levy and reported the fraud in a number of articles.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Rhine, J.B |title=A new case of experimenter unreliability |journal=Journal of Parapsychology |volume=38 |pages=137–153 |year=1974}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Bauer, E |title=Criticism and Controversy in Parapsychology – An Overview |journal=European Journal of Parapsychology |volume=5 |pages=141–166 |year=1984 |url=http://www.psy.gu.se/EJP/EJP1984Bauer.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=2007-07-31}}</ref>