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[[Image:socrates_1.jpg|thumb|right|Sǒcratēs; circa 470 BC–399 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher who is widely credited for laying the foundation for Western philosophy, and its most influential practitioner.]]The '''history of [[philosophy]]''' is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical context?  To what degree can philosophical texts from prior historical eras even be understood today?

 

[[Image:socrates_1.jpg|frame|right|[[Socrates|Sǒcratēs]]; circa 470 BC–399 BC) ancient Greek philosopher credited with the foundation for Western philosophy.]]The '''history of [[philosophy]]''' is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically? What drives the development of thought in its historical context?  To what degree can philosophical texts from prior historical eras even be understood today?

All cultures — be they [[prehistoric]], [[ancient]], [[mediæval]], or [[Modernism|modern]]; [[Eastern hemisphere|Eastern]], [[Western hemisphere|Western]], [[religious]] or [[secular]] — have had their own unique schools of philosophy, arrived at through both inheritance and through independent discovery. Such theories have grown from different [[premise|premises]] and approaches, examples of which include (but are not limited to) [[rationalism]] (theories arrived at through [[logic]]), [[empiricism]] (theories arrived at through observation), and even through [[leap of faith|leaps of faith]], hope and inheritance (such as the [[supernatural|supernaturalist]] philosophies and [[religion|religions]]).

All cultures — be they [[prehistoric]], [[ancient]], [[mediæval]], or [[Modernism|modern]]; [[Eastern hemisphere|Eastern]], [[Western hemisphere|Western]], [[religious]] or [[secular]] — have had their own unique schools of philosophy, arrived at through both inheritance and through independent discovery. Such theories have grown from different [[premise|premises]] and approaches, examples of which include (but are not limited to) [[rationalism]] (theories arrived at through [[logic]]), [[empiricism]] (theories arrived at through observation), and even through [[leap of faith|leaps of faith]], hope and inheritance (such as the [[supernatural|supernaturalist]] philosophies and [[religion|religions]]).

History of philosophy seeks to catalogue and classify such development. The goal is to understand the development of philosophical ideas through time.  

History of philosophy seeks to catalogue and classify such development. The goal is to understand the development of philosophical ideas through time.  

== [[Western Philosophy]] ==

== [[Western Philosophy]] ==

There is considerable discussion about why Athenian culture encouraged philosophy, but a popular theory says that it occurred because Athens had a direct [[democracy]]. It is known from Plato's writings that many sophists maintained schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students. Orators influenced Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See [[Battle of Lade]]). Another theory explains the birth of philosophical debate in Athens with the presence of a slave labor workforce which performed the necessary functions that would otherwise have consumed the time of the free male citizenry. Freed from working in the fields or other manual economic activities, they were able to participate in the assemblies of Athens and spend long periods in discussions on popular philosophical questions. Students of Sophists needed to acquire the skills of oration in order to influence the Athenian Assembly and thereby increase respect and wealth. In response, the subjects and methods of debate became highly developed by the Sophists.  

There is considerable discussion about why Athenian culture encouraged philosophy, but a popular theory says that it occurred because Athens had a direct [[democracy]]. It is known from Plato's writings that many sophists maintained schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students. Orators influenced Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See [[Battle of Lade]]). Another theory explains the birth of philosophical debate in Athens with the presence of a slave labor workforce which performed the necessary functions that would otherwise have consumed the time of the free male citizenry. Freed from working in the fields or other manual economic activities, they were able to participate in the assemblies of Athens and spend long periods in discussions on popular philosophical questions. Students of Sophists needed to acquire the skills of oration in order to influence the Athenian Assembly and thereby increase respect and wealth. In response, the subjects and methods of debate became highly developed by the Sophists.  

The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project - the one still being pursued today - is [[Socrates]], who studied under several Sophists. It is said that following a visit to the [[Oracle of Delphi]] he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common but critical concepts that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty and truth, and the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Socrates' awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover his errors as well as the errors of those who claimed knowledge based upon falsifiable or unclear precepts and beliefs. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of prominent Athenian citizens (including [[Plato]]), which led to his [[Socrates#Trial_and_death|trial and execution]] in 399 B.C. on the charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the youth, [[piety]], and moral fiber of the city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens, abide by his principles, and drink the poison [[hemlock]].

The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project - the one still being pursued today - is [[Socrates]], who studied under several Sophists. It is said that following a visit to the [[Oracle of Delphi]] he spent much of his life questioning anyone in Athens who would engage him, in order to disprove the oracular prophecy that there would be no man wiser than Socrates. Through these live dialogues, he examined common but critical concepts that lacked clear or concrete definitions, such as beauty and truth, and the virtues of piety, wisdom, temperance, courage, and justice. Socrates' awareness of his own ignorance allowed him to discover his errors as well as the errors of those who claimed knowledge based upon falsifiable or unclear precepts and beliefs. He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples, including many sons of prominent Athenian citizens (including [[Plato]]), which led to his [[Socrates#Trial_and_death|trial and execution]] in 399 B.C. on the charge that his philosophy and sophistry were undermining the youth, [[piety]], and moral fiber of the city. He was offered a chance to flee from his fate but chose to remain in Athens, abide by his principles, and drink the poison [[hemlock]].

Socrates' most important student was Plato, who founded the [[Academy]] of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, which applied the [[Socratic method]] of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of Plato's dialogues are the [[The Forms|Theory of Forms]], i.e., that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and contemplate concepts from a higher order preeminent world, concepts more real, permanent, and universal than or representative of the ''things of this world'', which are only changing and temporal; the idea of the immortal soul being superior to the body; the idea of evil as simple ignorance of truth; that true knowledge leads to true virtue; that art is subordinate to moral purpose; and that the society of the [[city-state]] should be governed by a merit class of propertyless philosopher kings, with no permanent wives or paternity rights over their children, and be protected by an athletically gifted, honorable, duty bound military class. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, but Plato had previously woven his own thoughts into some of Socrates' words. Interestingly, in his most famous work, ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'', Plato critiques democracy, condemns tyranny, and proposes a three tiered merit based structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in an equal relationship, where no innocents would ever be put to death again, citing the philosophers' relentless love of truth and knowledge of the forms or ideals, concern for general welfare and lack of propertied interest as causes for their being suited to govern.

Socrates' most important student was Plato, who founded the [[Academy]] of Athens and wrote a number of dialogues, which applied the [[Socratic method]] of inquiry to examine philosophical problems. Some central ideas of Plato's dialogues are the [[The Forms|Theory of Forms]], i.e., that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and contemplate concepts from a higher order preeminent world, concepts more real, permanent, and universal than or representative of the ''things of this world'', which are only changing and temporal; the idea of the immortal soul being superior to the body; the idea of evil as simple ignorance of truth; that true knowledge leads to true virtue; that art is subordinate to moral purpose; and that the society of the [[city-state]] should be governed by a merit class of propertyless philosopher kings, with no permanent wives or paternity rights over their children, and be protected by an athletically gifted, honorable, duty bound military class. In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, but Plato had previously woven his own thoughts into some of Socrates' words. Interestingly, in his most famous work, ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'', Plato critiques democracy, condemns tyranny, and proposes a three tiered merit based structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in an equal relationship, where no innocents would ever be put to death again, citing the philosophers' relentless love of truth and knowledge of the forms or ideals, concern for general welfare and lack of propertied interest as causes for their being suited to govern.

Plato's most outstanding student was [[Aristotle]], perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher.  [[Aristotelian logic]] was the first type of [[logic]] to attempt to categorize every valid [[syllogism]]. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be [[validity|valid]]. A crucial assumption in [[Aristotelian logic]] is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle's syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, "All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C." This syllogism fails if set A is empty, but there are real members of set B. In Aristotle's syllogistic logic you could say this, because his logic should only be used for things that really exist ("no empty classes")

Plato's most outstanding student was [[Aristotle]], perhaps the first truly systematic philosopher.  [[Aristotelian logic]] was the first type of [[logic]] to attempt to categorize every valid [[syllogism]]. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be [[validity|valid]]. A crucial assumption in [[Aristotelian logic]] is that it has to be about real objects. Two of Aristotle's syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes. For example, "All A are B. All A are C. Therefore, some B are C." This syllogism fails if set A is empty, but there are real members of set B. In Aristotle's syllogistic logic you could say this, because his logic should only be used for things that really exist ("no empty classes")

=== [[Medieval Philosophy]] ===

=== [[Medieval Philosophy]] ===

Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with the nature of God, and the application of [[Aristotle]]'s [[term logic|logic]] and thought to every area of life.

Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with the nature of God, and the application of [[Aristotle]]'s [[term logic|logic]] and thought to every area of life.

The [[18th-century philosophy]] article deals with the period often called the early part of "The Enlightenment" in the shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s natural philosophy. Thus [[Diderot]], [[Voltaire]], [[Rousseau]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Kant]] and the political philosophies embodied by and influencing the [[American Revolution]] are part of [[The Enlightenment]].  Other prominent philosophers of this time period were [[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]], who, along with [[Francis Hutcheson]], were also the primary philosophers of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].

The [[18th-century philosophy]] article deals with the period often called the early part of "The Enlightenment" in the shorter form of the word, and centers on the rise of systematic empiricism, following after [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s natural philosophy. Thus [[Diderot]], [[Voltaire]], [[Rousseau]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Kant]] and the political philosophies embodied by and influencing the [[American Revolution]] are part of [[The Enlightenment]].  Other prominent philosophers of this time period were [[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]], who, along with [[Francis Hutcheson]], were also the primary philosophers of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]].

The [[19th-century philosophy|19th century]] took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

The [[19th-century philosophy|19th century]] took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

=== [[Contemporary Philosophy]] ===

=== [[Contemporary Philosophy]] ===

The [[20th-century philosophy|20th century]] deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietszche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. [[Epistemology]] (theory of knowledge) and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[poststructuralism]] ([[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of "pop" philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world but were isolated philosophically, including [[Ayn Rand]]. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of [[Aristotelianism]].

The [[20th-century philosophy|20th century]] deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietszche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. [[Epistemology]] (theory of knowledge) and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[poststructuralism]] ([[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of "pop" philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world but were isolated philosophically, including [[Ayn Rand]]. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of [[Aristotelianism]].

== [[Eastern philosophy]] ==

== [[Eastern philosophy]] ==

In [[Western culture|the West]], the term [[Eastern philosophy]] refers very broadly to the various [[philosophy|philosophies]] of "the East," namely [[Asia]], including [[China]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that these countries do not belong to a single culture.

In [[Western culture|the West]], the term [[Eastern philosophy]] refers very broadly to the various [[philosophy|philosophies]] of "the East," namely [[Asia]], including [[China]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and the general area. One must take into account that this term ignores that these countries do not belong to a single culture.

Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in [[India]] and [[China]]. The Indian or Hindu schools of philosophy can be considered the oldest schools of philosophy - they predate Greek philosophy by almost 500 years. Hindu philosophy primarily begins with [[Upanishad]]s, which can be dated close to 800 BC. The oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the eighth century BCE. The philosophical edifice of Indian religions viz., [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. Hindu philosophy is followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies.  

Ancient eastern philosophy developed mainly in [[India]] and [[China]]. The Indian or Hindu schools of philosophy can be considered the oldest schools of philosophy - they predate Greek philosophy by almost 500 years. Hindu philosophy primarily begins with [[Upanishad]]s, which can be dated close to 800 BC. The oldest, such as the Brhadaranyaka and Chandogya Upanishads, have been dated to around the eighth century BCE. The philosophical edifice of Indian religions viz., [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] is built on the foundation laid by the Upanishads. Hindu philosophy is followed by the Buddhist and Jain philosophies.  

[[Confucianism]] can be considered as the oldest school of philosophy in China. Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism developed in India. Another school of philosophy,  [[Taoism]], developed in China around 200 BC.

[[Confucianism]] can be considered as the oldest school of philosophy in China. Confucianism developed in China around the same time as Buddhism and Jainism developed in India. Another school of philosophy,  [[Taoism]], developed in China around 200 BC.

== [[Abrahamic philosophy]] ==

== [[Abrahamic philosophy]] ==

Abrahamic philosophy, in its loosest sense, comprises the series of philosophical schools that emerged from the study and commentary of the common ancient [[Semitic]] tradition which can be traced by their adherents to [[Abraham]] ("Father/Leader of many" Hebrew אַבְרָהָם ("Avraham") Arabic ابراهيم ("Ibrahim"), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the [[Hebrew Bible]]/[[Old Testament]], and as a prophet in the [[Qur'an]] and also called a prophet in [[Genesis]] 20:7.

Abrahamic philosophy, in its loosest sense, comprises the series of philosophical schools that emerged from the study and commentary of the common ancient [[Semitic]] tradition which can be traced by their adherents to [[Abraham]] ("Father/Leader of many" Hebrew אַבְרָהָם ("Avraham") Arabic ابراهيم ("Ibrahim"), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the [[Hebrew Bible]]/[[Old Testament]], and as a prophet in the [[Qur'an]] and also called a prophet in [[Genesis]] 20:7.

*[[History of Ideas]]

*[[History of Ideas]]

*[[Intellectual History]]

*[[Intellectual History]]

== External links ==

== External links ==

*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaVI.html The history of religious and philosophical ideas], in ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''

*[https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/analytic/anaVI.html The history of religious and philosophical ideas], in ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas''

* [http://www.digdownproductions.com Evil in Modern Thought: An Alternative History of Philosophy.  A documentary film about the problem of evil.]

* [https://www.digdownproductions.com Evil in Modern Thought: An Alternative History of Philosophy.  A documentary film about the problem of evil.]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Philosophy]]

[[Category: Philosophy]]