Changes

The [[19th-century philosophy|19th century]] took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

The [[19th-century philosophy|19th century]] took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a "dialectical" framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of Charles Darwin, which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

=== Contemporary philosophy ===

=== [[Contemporary Philosophy]] ===

The [[20th-century philosophy|20th century]] deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietszche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. [[Epistemology]] (theory of knowledge) and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[poststructuralism]] ([[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of "pop" philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world but were isolated philosophically, including [[Ayn Rand]]. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of [[Aristotelianism]].

The [[20th-century philosophy|20th century]] deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietszche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. [[Epistemology]] (theory of knowledge) and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Bertrand Russell]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[poststructuralism]] ([[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of "pop" philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world but were isolated philosophically, including [[Ayn Rand]]. Conversely, some philosophers have attempted to define and rehabilitate older traditions of philosophy. Most notably, [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]] and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] have both, albeit in different ways, revived the tradition of [[Aristotelianism]].