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===Races as social constructions===

===Races as social constructions===

Researchers have reported differences in the average [[IQ]] test scores of various ethnic groups. The interpretation, causes, accuracy and reliability of these differences are highly controversial. Some researchers, such as [[Arthur Jensen]], [[Richard Herrnstein]], and [[Richard Lynn]] have argued that such differences are at least partially genetic. Others, for example [[Thomas Sowell]], argue that the differences largely owe to social and economic inequalities. Still others have such as [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Richard Lewontin]] have argued that categories such as "race" and "intelligence" are cultural constructs that render any attempt to explain such differences (whether genetically or sociologically) meaningless.

Researchers have reported differences in the average [[IQ]] test scores of various ethnic groups. The interpretation, causes, accuracy and reliability of these differences are highly controversial. Some researchers, such as [[Arthur Jensen]], [[Richard Herrnstein]], and [[Richard Lynn]] have argued that such differences are at least partially genetic. Others, for example [[Thomas Sowell]], argue that the differences largely owe to social and economic inequalities. Still others have such as [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Richard Lewontin]] have argued that categories such as "race" and "intelligence" are cultural constructs that render any attempt to explain such differences (whether genetically or sociologically) meaningless.

The [[Flynn effect]] is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at varying rates. Scholars therefore believe that rapid increases in average IQ seen in many places are much too fast to be as a result of changes in brain physiology and more likely as a result of environmental changes. The fact that  environment has a significant effect on IQ demolishes the case for the use of IQ data as a source of genetic information<ref name="race_myth">[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0813533023/ biological theories of race page165]</ref><ref name="race_myth2">[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/B000F7113I/ page183]</ref>.

The [[Flynn effect]] is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at varying rates. Scholars therefore believe that rapid increases in average IQ seen in many places are much too fast to be as a result of changes in brain physiology and more likely as a result of environmental changes. The fact that  environment has a significant effect on IQ demolishes the case for the use of IQ data as a source of genetic information<ref name="race_myth">[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0813533023/ biological theories of race page165]</ref><ref name="race_myth2">[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/B000F7113I/ page183]</ref>.

=== Race in biomedicine ===

=== Race in biomedicine ===

There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of [[disease]]s by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics. Some have argued that in the absence of cheap and widespread genetic tests, racial identification is the best way to predict for certain diseases, such as [[Cystic fibrosis]], [[Lactose intolerance]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]] and [[sickle cell anemia]], which are genetically linked and more prevalent in some populations than others. The most well-known examples of genetically-determined disorders that vary in incidence among populations would be [[sickle cell disease]], [[thalassaemia]], and [[Tay-Sachs disease]].

There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of [[disease]]s by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics. Some have argued that in the absence of cheap and widespread genetic tests, racial identification is the best way to predict for certain diseases, such as [[Cystic fibrosis]], [[Lactose intolerance]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]] and [[sickle cell anemia]], which are genetically linked and more prevalent in some populations than others. The most well-known examples of genetically-determined disorders that vary in incidence among populations would be [[sickle cell disease]], [[thalassaemia]], and [[Tay-Sachs disease]].

There has been criticism of associating disorders with race. For example, in the United States sickle cell is typically associated with black people, but this trait is also found in people of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern or Indian ancestry.<ref>[http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/posters/chromosome/sca.shtml sickle cell prevalence ]</ref> The sickle cell trait offers some resistance to [[malaria]]. In regions where malaria is present sickle cell has been [[Balancing selection|positively selected]] and consequently the proportion of people with it is greater. Therefore, it has been argued that sickle cell should not be associated with a particular race, but rather with having ancestors who lived in a malaria-prone region. Africans living in areas where there is no malaria, such as the East African highlands, have prevalence of sickle cell as low as parts of Northern Europe.

There has been criticism of associating disorders with race. For example, in the United States sickle cell is typically associated with black people, but this trait is also found in people of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern or Indian ancestry.<ref>[https://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/posters/chromosome/sca.shtml sickle cell prevalence ]</ref> The sickle cell trait offers some resistance to [[malaria]]. In regions where malaria is present sickle cell has been [[Balancing selection|positively selected]] and consequently the proportion of people with it is greater. Therefore, it has been argued that sickle cell should not be associated with a particular race, but rather with having ancestors who lived in a malaria-prone region. Africans living in areas where there is no malaria, such as the East African highlands, have prevalence of sickle cell as low as parts of Northern Europe.

Another example of the use of race in medicine is the recent [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. FDA]] approval of [[Isosorbide dinitrate/hydralazine|BiDil]], a medication for congestive heart failure targeted at black people in the United States.<ref>Taylor AL, Ziesche S, Yancy C, Carson P, D'Agostino R Jr, Ferdinand K, Taylor M, Adams K, Sabolinski M, Worcel M, Cohn JN. Combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine in blacks with heart failure. N Engl J Med 2004;351:2049-57. PMID 15533851.</ref>  Several researchers have questioned the scientific basis for arguing the merits of a medication based on race, however.  As Stephan Palmie has recently pointed out, black Americans were disproportionately affected by Hurricane Katrina, but for social and not climatological reasons; similarly, certain diseases may disproportionately affect different races, but not for biological reasons.  Several researchers have suggested that BiDil was re-designated as a medicine for a race-specific illness because its manufacturer, Nitromed, needed to propose a new use for an existing medication in order to justify an extension of its patent and thus monopoly on the medication,<ref> Duster, Troy (2005) "Race and Reification in Science" in ''Science'' 307(5712): 1050-1051, Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2004) "Refashioning Race: DNA and the Politics of Health" in ''differences'' 15(3):1-37, Jones, Joseph and Alan Goodman (2005) "BiDil and the 'fact' of Genetic Blackness" in ''Anthropology News'' 46(7):26, Kahn, Joseph (2004) "How a Drug Becomes 'Ethnic:' Law, Commerce, and the Production of Racial Categories in Medicine" in ''Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law and Politics'' 4(1):1-46, Kahn, Joseph (2005) "Misreading Race and Genomics after BiDil" in ''Nature Genetics 37(7):655-656, Palmie, Stephan (2007) "Genomics, Divination and 'Racecraft'" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 205-222).</ref> not for pharmacological reasons.

Another example of the use of race in medicine is the recent [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. FDA]] approval of [[Isosorbide dinitrate/hydralazine|BiDil]], a medication for congestive heart failure targeted at black people in the United States.<ref>Taylor AL, Ziesche S, Yancy C, Carson P, D'Agostino R Jr, Ferdinand K, Taylor M, Adams K, Sabolinski M, Worcel M, Cohn JN. Combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine in blacks with heart failure. N Engl J Med 2004;351:2049-57. PMID 15533851.</ref>  Several researchers have questioned the scientific basis for arguing the merits of a medication based on race, however.  As Stephan Palmie has recently pointed out, black Americans were disproportionately affected by Hurricane Katrina, but for social and not climatological reasons; similarly, certain diseases may disproportionately affect different races, but not for biological reasons.  Several researchers have suggested that BiDil was re-designated as a medicine for a race-specific illness because its manufacturer, Nitromed, needed to propose a new use for an existing medication in order to justify an extension of its patent and thus monopoly on the medication,<ref> Duster, Troy (2005) "Race and Reification in Science" in ''Science'' 307(5712): 1050-1051, Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2004) "Refashioning Race: DNA and the Politics of Health" in ''differences'' 15(3):1-37, Jones, Joseph and Alan Goodman (2005) "BiDil and the 'fact' of Genetic Blackness" in ''Anthropology News'' 46(7):26, Kahn, Joseph (2004) "How a Drug Becomes 'Ethnic:' Law, Commerce, and the Production of Racial Categories in Medicine" in ''Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law and Politics'' 4(1):1-46, Kahn, Joseph (2005) "Misreading Race and Genomics after BiDil" in ''Nature Genetics 37(7):655-656, Palmie, Stephan (2007) "Genomics, Divination and 'Racecraft'" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 205-222).</ref> not for pharmacological reasons.

[[Gene flow]] and intermixture also have an effect on predicting a relationship between race and "race linked disorders". Multiple sclerosis is typically associated with people of European descent and is of low risk to people of African descent. However due to gene flow between the populations, African Americans have elevated levels of MS relative to Africans.<ref>[http://www.med.harvard.edu/publications/On_The_Brain/Volume05/Number4/MSf.html Multiple Sclerosis. ''The Immune System's Terrible Mistake.''] BY PETER RISKIND, M.D., PH.D.</ref> Notable African Americans affected by MS include [[Richard Pryor]] and [[Montel Williams]]. As populations continue to mix, the role of socially constructed races may diminish in identifying diseases.

[[Gene flow]] and intermixture also have an effect on predicting a relationship between race and "race linked disorders". Multiple sclerosis is typically associated with people of European descent and is of low risk to people of African descent. However due to gene flow between the populations, African Americans have elevated levels of MS relative to Africans.<ref>[https://www.med.harvard.edu/publications/On_The_Brain/Volume05/Number4/MSf.html Multiple Sclerosis. ''The Immune System's Terrible Mistake.''] BY PETER RISKIND, M.D., PH.D.</ref> Notable African Americans affected by MS include [[Richard Pryor]] and [[Montel Williams]]. As populations continue to mix, the role of socially constructed races may diminish in identifying diseases.

=== Race in law enforcement ===

=== Race in law enforcement ===

In many countries, such as [[France]], the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like "dark skin complexion", etc. One of the factors that encourages this kind of circuitous wordings is that there is controversy over the actual relationship between crimes, their assigned punishments, and the division of people into the so called "races," leading officials to try to deemphasize the alleged race of suspects. In the United States, the practice of [[racial profiling]] has been ruled to be both [[unconstitutional]] and also to constitute a violation of [[civil rights]]. There is active debate regarding the cause of a marked correlation between the recorded crimes, punishments meted out, and the country's "racially divided" people. Many consider ''de facto'' [[racial profiling]] an example of [[institutional racism]] in law enforcement. The history of misuse of racial categories to adversely impact one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.

In many countries, such as [[France]], the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like "dark skin complexion", etc. One of the factors that encourages this kind of circuitous wordings is that there is controversy over the actual relationship between crimes, their assigned punishments, and the division of people into the so called "races," leading officials to try to deemphasize the alleged race of suspects. In the United States, the practice of [[racial profiling]] has been ruled to be both [[unconstitutional]] and also to constitute a violation of [[civil rights]]. There is active debate regarding the cause of a marked correlation between the recorded crimes, punishments meted out, and the country's "racially divided" people. Many consider ''de facto'' [[racial profiling]] an example of [[institutional racism]] in law enforcement. The history of misuse of racial categories to adversely impact one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.

More recent work in racial taxonomy based on DNA cluster analysis (see [[Lewontin's Fallacy]]) has led law enforcement to narrow their search for individuals based on a range of phenotypical characteristics found consistent with DNA evidence.<ref>  [http://transobj.workopolis.com/servlet/Content/fasttrack/20050625/DNA25?section=Biotech '''Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face''' ''Controversial crime-scene test smacks of racial profiling, critics say''] CAROLYN ABRAHAM [[June 25]], 2005</ref>

More recent work in racial taxonomy based on DNA cluster analysis (see [[Lewontin's Fallacy]]) has led law enforcement to narrow their search for individuals based on a range of phenotypical characteristics found consistent with DNA evidence.<ref>  [https://transobj.workopolis.com/servlet/Content/fasttrack/20050625/DNA25?section=Biotech '''Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face''' ''Controversial crime-scene test smacks of racial profiling, critics say''] CAROLYN ABRAHAM [[June 25]], 2005</ref>

While controversial, DNA analysis has been successful in helping police identify both victims and perpetrators by giving an indication of what phenotypical characteristics to look for and what community the individual may have lived in. For example, in one case phenotypical characteristics suggested that the friends and family of an unidentified victim would be found among the Asian community, but the DNA evidence directed official attention to missing Native Americans, where her true identity was eventually confirmed.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-08-16-dna_x.htm DNA tests offer clues to suspect's race] By Richard Willing, USA TODAY</ref> In an attempt to avoid potentially misleading associations suggested by the word "race," this classification is called "biogeographical ancestry" (BGA),<ref>[http://appft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PG01&s1=20040229231&OS=20040229231&RS=20040229231 Compositions and methods for inferring ancestry]</ref> but the terms for the BGA categories are similar to those used as for race. The difference is that ancestry-informative DNA markers identify continent-of-ancestry admixture, not ethnic self-identity, and provide a wide range of phenotypical characteristics such that some people in a biogeographical category will not match the stereotypical image of an individual belonging to the corresponding race. To facilitate the work of officials trying to find individuals based on the evidence of their DNA traces, firms providing the genetic analyses also provide photographs showing a full range of phenotypical characteristics of people in each biogeographical group. Of special interest to officials trying to find individuals on the basis of DNA samples that indicate a diverse genetic background is what range of phenotypical characteristics people with that general mixture of genotypical characteristics may display.

While controversial, DNA analysis has been successful in helping police identify both victims and perpetrators by giving an indication of what phenotypical characteristics to look for and what community the individual may have lived in. For example, in one case phenotypical characteristics suggested that the friends and family of an unidentified victim would be found among the Asian community, but the DNA evidence directed official attention to missing Native Americans, where her true identity was eventually confirmed.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-08-16-dna_x.htm DNA tests offer clues to suspect's race] By Richard Willing, USA TODAY</ref> In an attempt to avoid potentially misleading associations suggested by the word "race," this classification is called "biogeographical ancestry" (BGA),<ref>[https://appft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PG01&s1=20040229231&OS=20040229231&RS=20040229231 Compositions and methods for inferring ancestry]</ref> but the terms for the BGA categories are similar to those used as for race. The difference is that ancestry-informative DNA markers identify continent-of-ancestry admixture, not ethnic self-identity, and provide a wide range of phenotypical characteristics such that some people in a biogeographical category will not match the stereotypical image of an individual belonging to the corresponding race. To facilitate the work of officials trying to find individuals based on the evidence of their DNA traces, firms providing the genetic analyses also provide photographs showing a full range of phenotypical characteristics of people in each biogeographical group. Of special interest to officials trying to find individuals on the basis of DNA samples that indicate a diverse genetic background is what range of phenotypical characteristics people with that general mixture of genotypical characteristics may display.

Similarly, [[forensic anthropology|forensic anthropologists]] draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) in order to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race.  In a recent article anthropologist Norman Sauer asked, "if races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them."<ref>Sauer, Norman J. (1992) "Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them" in Social Science and Medicine 34(2): 107-111. </ref>  Sauer observed that the use of 19th century racial categories is widespread among forensic anthropologists:  

Similarly, [[forensic anthropology|forensic anthropologists]] draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) in order to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race.  In a recent article anthropologist Norman Sauer asked, "if races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them."<ref>Sauer, Norman J. (1992) "Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them" in Social Science and Medicine 34(2): 107-111. </ref>  Sauer observed that the use of 19th century racial categories is widespread among forensic anthropologists:  

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* Smedley A (1999) Race in North America: origin and evolution of a worldview, 2nd ed. Westview Press, Boulder

* Smedley A (1999) Race in North America: origin and evolution of a worldview, 2nd ed. Westview Press, Boulder

* Takahata N, Lee S, Satta Y (2001) Testing multiregionality of modern human origins. Mol Biol Evol 18:172–183

* Takahata N, Lee S, Satta Y (2001) Testing multiregionality of modern human origins. Mol Biol Evol 18:172–183

* Takaki R (1993) A different mirror: a history of multicultural America. Little, Brown, Boston

* Takaki R (1993) A different mirror: a history of multicultural America. Little, Brown, Boston

* Tang H, Quertermous T, Rodriguez B, Kardia SL, Zhu X, Brown A, Pankow JS, Province MA, Hunt SC, Boerwinkle E, Schork NJ, Risch NJ (2005). Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies. ''Am J Hum Genet'' 76, 268-75. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15625622]

* Tang H, Quertermous T, Rodriguez B, Kardia SL, Zhu X, Brown A, Pankow JS, Province MA, Hunt SC, Boerwinkle E, Schork NJ, Risch NJ (2005). Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies. ''Am J Hum Genet'' 76, 268-75. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15625622]

* Tate SK, Goldstein DB (2004) Will tomorrow's medicines work for everyone? Nat Genet 36:S34–S42

* Tate SK, Goldstein DB (2004) Will tomorrow's medicines work for everyone? Nat Genet 36:S34–S42

* Templeton AR (1998) Human races: a genetic and evolutionary perspective. Am Anthropol 100:632–650

* Templeton AR (1998) Human races: a genetic and evolutionary perspective. Am Anthropol 100:632–650

===Official statements and standards===

===Official statements and standards===

* [http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm American Anthropological Association's Statement on Race] and [http://www.understandingRACE.org RACE: Are we so different?]a public education program developed by the American Anthropological Association.

* [https://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm American Anthropological Association's Statement on Race] and [https://www.understandingRACE.org RACE: Are we so different?]a public education program developed by the American Anthropological Association.

* [http://www.physanth.org/positions/race.html American Association of Physical Anthropologists' Statement on Biological Aspects of Race]

* [https://www.physanth.org/positions/race.html American Association of Physical Anthropologists' Statement on Biological Aspects of Race]

* OMB Statistical Directive 15, [http://www.doi.gov/diversity/doc/racedata.htm "Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity"], ''Federal Register'', 30 October 1997.

* OMB Statistical Directive 15, [https://www.doi.gov/diversity/doc/racedata.htm "Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity"], ''Federal Register'', 30 October 1997.

*[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001282/128291eo.pdf "The Race Question"], [[UNESCO]], 1950

*[https://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001282/128291eo.pdf "The Race Question"], [[UNESCO]], 1950

* [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68184.htm US Census Bureau: Definition of Race]

* [https://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68184.htm US Census Bureau: Definition of Race]

=== Review articles ===

=== Review articles ===

* [http://scbe.stanford.edu/events/pdfs/genomebio.pdf Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease] - Neil Risch,''et al.''

* [https://scbe.stanford.edu/events/pdfs/genomebio.pdf Categorization of humans in biomedical research: genes, race and disease] - Neil Risch,''et al.''

* [http://www.fiu.edu/~biology/pcb5665/RACEgen.pdf Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race] - Michael Bamshad, ''et al.''

* [https://www.fiu.edu/~biology/pcb5665/RACEgen.pdf Deconstructing the relationship between genetics and race] - Michael Bamshad, ''et al.''

* [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16175499 The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research] -- The Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group of the National Human Genome Research Institute

* [https://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=16175499 The use of racial, ethnic, and ancestral categories in human genetics research] -- The Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group of the National Human Genome Research Institute

*[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/stalkers/jpr01.html "Race as a Biological Concept"] by [[J. Philippe Rushton]]

*[https://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/stalkers/jpr01.html "Race as a Biological Concept"] by [[J. Philippe Rushton]]

*[http://www.behavior.org/journals_BP/2002/Levin.pdf The Race Concept: A Defense] by Michael Levin

*[https://www.behavior.org/journals_BP/2002/Levin.pdf The Race Concept: A Defense] by Michael Levin

* [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/dynapage.taf?file=/ng/journal/v36/n11s/index.html Genetics for the Human Race] ''Nature Genetics'' supplement, September 2004, Vol 36, Issue 11s.

* [https://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/dynapage.taf?file=/ng/journal/v36/n11s/index.html Genetics for the Human Race] ''Nature Genetics'' supplement, September 2004, Vol 36, Issue 11s.

* The Importance of Race and Ethnic Background in Biomedical Research and Clinical Practice - Esteban González Burchard, ''et al.'' [http://scbe.stanford.edu/events/pdfs/burchard.pdf PDF]

* The Importance of Race and Ethnic Background in Biomedical Research and Clinical Practice - Esteban González Burchard, ''et al.'' [https://scbe.stanford.edu/events/pdfs/burchard.pdf PDF]

*  [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml US Human Genome Project on "Issues of Race"]

*  [https://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml US Human Genome Project on "Issues of Race"]

*  [http://mbe.library.arizona.edu/data/1993/1005/1nei.pdf Evolutionary relationships of human populations on a global scale] - Masatoshi Nei and Arun K.

*  [https://mbe.library.arizona.edu/data/1993/1005/1nei.pdf Evolutionary relationships of human populations on a global scale] - Masatoshi Nei and Arun K.

*  [http://www.genome.org/cgi/reprint/894603v1.pdf Genetic Variation Among World Populations: Inferences From 100 Alu Insertion Polymorphisms] - W. Scott Watkins,''et al.''

*  [https://www.genome.org/cgi/reprint/894603v1.pdf Genetic Variation Among World Populations: Inferences From 100 Alu Insertion Polymorphisms] - W. Scott Watkins,''et al.''

*  [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v72n5/024787/024787.web.pdf Features of Evolution and Expansion of Modern Humans, Inferred from Genomewide Microsatellite Markers] - Lev A. Zhivotovsky,''et al.''

*  [https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v72n5/024787/024787.web.pdf Features of Evolution and Expansion of Modern Humans, Inferred from Genomewide Microsatellite Markers] - Lev A. Zhivotovsky,''et al.''

*  [http://shrn.stanford.edu/workshops/revisitingrace/Jorde-Wooding2004.pdf Genetic variation, classification and ‘race’] - Lynn B Jorde,''et al.''

*  [https://shrn.stanford.edu/workshops/revisitingrace/Jorde-Wooding2004.pdf Genetic variation, classification and ‘race’] - Lynn B Jorde,''et al.''

*  [http://rosenberglab.bioinformatics.med.umich.edu/papers/microsats.pdf Microsatellite evolution in modern humans: a comparison of two data sets from the same populations] - L. JIN,''et al.''

*  [https://rosenberglab.bioinformatics.med.umich.edu/papers/microsats.pdf Microsatellite evolution in modern humans: a comparison of two data sets from the same populations] - L. JIN,''et al.''

*  [http://www.as.wvu.edu/~dray/Papers/Witherspoon_et_al_2006_-_LINEs_and_human_populations.pdf Human Population Genetic Structure. and Diversity Inferred from Polymorphic. L1 (LINE-1) and Alu Insertions] - D.J. Witherspoon,''et al.''

*  [https://www.as.wvu.edu/~dray/Papers/Witherspoon_et_al_2006_-_LINEs_and_human_populations.pdf Human Population Genetic Structure. and Diversity Inferred from Polymorphic. L1 (LINE-1) and Alu Insertions] - D.J. Witherspoon,''et al.''

*  [http://www.geog.or.jp/journal/back/pdf111-6/p832-839L.pdf East Eurasian Viewed from Genes] - Naruya SAITOU

*  [https://www.geog.or.jp/journal/back/pdf111-6/p832-839L.pdf East Eurasian Viewed from Genes] - Naruya SAITOU

*  [http://www.bio.unc.edu/courses/2006Fall/Biol423L/Pdfsforwebpage/AJPhysAnthrop03AyubSforzaHumanEvol.pdf Reconstruction of Human Evolutionary Tree Using Polymorphic Autosomal Microsatellites] - Qasim Ayub,''et al.''

*  [https://www.bio.unc.edu/courses/2006Fall/Biol423L/Pdfsforwebpage/AJPhysAnthrop03AyubSforzaHumanEvol.pdf Reconstruction of Human Evolutionary Tree Using Polymorphic Autosomal Microsatellites] - Qasim Ayub,''et al.''

*[http://www.upf.edu/cexs/recerca/bioevo/2000BioEvo/BE2000-Calafell-replyDestroBisol-HG.pdf Genetic distances and microsatellite diversification in humans] - Francesc Calafell,''et al.''

*[https://www.upf.edu/cexs/recerca/bioevo/2000BioEvo/BE2000-Calafell-replyDestroBisol-HG.pdf Genetic distances and microsatellite diversification in humans] - Francesc Calafell,''et al.''

*[http://pritch.bsd.uchicago.edu/publications/FalushEtAl03_Science.pdf Traces of Human Migrations in Helicobacter pylori Populations] - Daniel Falush,''et al.''

*[https://pritch.bsd.uchicago.edu/publications/FalushEtAl03_Science.pdf Traces of Human Migrations in Helicobacter pylori Populations] - Daniel Falush,''et al.''

*[http://info.med.yale.edu/genetics/kkidd/432.pdf#search='Understanding%20Human%20DNA%20Sequence%20Variation%20pdf' Understanding Human DNA Sequence Variation] - K. K. KIDD,''et al.''

*[https://info.med.yale.edu/genetics/kkidd/432.pdf#search='Understanding%20Human%20DNA%20Sequence%20Variation%20pdf' Understanding Human DNA Sequence Variation] - K. K. KIDD,''et al.''

*[http://www-bac.esi.umontreal.ca/~dbin1001/h05/presentations/snp/Fan_et_al_2002.pdf Assessing DNA Sequence Variations in Human ESTs in a Phylogenetic Context Using High-Density Oligonucleotide Arrays ] - Jian-Bing Fan,''et al.''

*[https://www-bac.esi.umontreal.ca/~dbin1001/h05/presentations/snp/Fan_et_al_2002.pdf Assessing DNA Sequence Variations in Human ESTs in a Phylogenetic Context Using High-Density Oligonucleotide Arrays ] - Jian-Bing Fan,''et al.''

*[http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~eparra/profile/PDF%20files/Shriver%20et%20al.,%202005.pdf Large-scale SNP analysis reveals clustered and continuous patterns of human genetic variation] - Mark D. Shriver,''et al.''

*[https://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~eparra/profile/PDF%20files/Shriver%20et%20al.,%202005.pdf Large-scale SNP analysis reveals clustered and continuous patterns of human genetic variation] - Mark D. Shriver,''et al.''

=== Research papers ===

=== Research papers ===

* Sandra Soo-Jin Lee, Joanna Mountain, and Barbara A. Koenig,  [http://academic.udayton.edu/health/08Research/research01.htm "The Reification of Race in Health Research"]

* Sandra Soo-Jin Lee, Joanna Mountain, and Barbara A. Koenig,  [https://academic.udayton.edu/health/08Research/research01.htm "The Reification of Race in Health Research"]

* Michael Root, [http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001094/ "The Use of Race in Medicine as a Proxy for Genetic Differences"]

* Michael Root, [https://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/archive/00001094/ "The Use of Race in Medicine as a Proxy for Genetic Differences"]

* [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15625622 Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Control Association Studies]

* [https://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15625622 Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Control Association Studies]

* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12493913&query_hl=2 "Genetic structure of human populations"], Feldman et al, ''Science''.  - "Self-reported population ancestry likely provides a suitable proxy for genetic ancestry."

* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12493913&query_hl=2 "Genetic structure of human populations"], Feldman et al, ''Science''.  - "Self-reported population ancestry likely provides a suitable proxy for genetic ancestry."

*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16357253&query_hl=10 Discovery of the human skin color gene SLC24A5]

*[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16357253&query_hl=10 Discovery of the human skin color gene SLC24A5]

*[http://www.genetics.org/cgi/rapidpdf/genetics.105.041095v1  Research on the X chromosome] claims to be the first genetic evidence (if excluding MtDNA and Y-chromosome analyses) suggesting an alternative to the [[Recent single-origin hypothesis]] model, incorporating admixture between divergent African branches of the genus ''Homo''. See also [[Hybrid-origin]] theory and [[multiregional hypothesis]].

*[https://www.genetics.org/cgi/rapidpdf/genetics.105.041095v1  Research on the X chromosome] claims to be the first genetic evidence (if excluding MtDNA and Y-chromosome analyses) suggesting an alternative to the [[Recent single-origin hypothesis]] model, incorporating admixture between divergent African branches of the genus ''Homo''. See also [[Hybrid-origin]] theory and [[multiregional hypothesis]].

=== Popular press ===

=== Popular press ===

* [[Richard Dawkins]]: [http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=6467 Race and creation] (extract from [[The Ancestor's Tale]]: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life) - On race, its usage and a theory of how it evolved. ([http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/ Prospect Magazine] October 2004) (see also [http://www.amren.com/mtnews/archives/2004/09/race_and_creati.php# longer extract here])

* [[Richard Dawkins]]: [https://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=6467 Race and creation] (extract from [[The Ancestor's Tale]]: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life) - On race, its usage and a theory of how it evolved. ([https://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/ Prospect Magazine] October 2004) (see also [https://www.amren.com/mtnews/archives/2004/09/race_and_creati.php# longer extract here])

* [http://www.pbs.org/race Race - The power of an illusion] Online companion to California Newsreel's 3-part documentary about race in society, science, and history.

* [https://www.pbs.org/race Race - The power of an illusion] Online companion to California Newsreel's 3-part documentary about race in society, science, and history.

* [http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/ Is Race "Real"?] - forum organized by the [[Social Science Research Council]], includes a [http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Leroi/ March 2005 op-ed article by A.M. Leroi from the ''New York Times''] advocating biological conceptions of race and responses from scholars in a variety of fields. - [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/leroi05/leroi05_index.html More from Leori with responses]

* [https://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/ Is Race "Real"?] - forum organized by the [[Social Science Research Council]], includes a [https://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Leroi/ March 2005 op-ed article by A.M. Leroi from the ''New York Times''] advocating biological conceptions of race and responses from scholars in a variety of fields. - [https://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/leroi05/leroi05_index.html More from Leori with responses]

* Steven and Hilary Rose, The Guardian, [http://www.politics.guardian.co.uk/life/science/story/0,12996,1455716,00.html "Why we should give up on race"], [[9 April]] [[2005]]

* Steven and Hilary Rose, The Guardian, [https://www.politics.guardian.co.uk/life/science/story/0,12996,1455716,00.html "Why we should give up on race"], [[9 April]] [[2005]]

* Times Online, [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,8122-1331319,00.html "Gene tests prove that we are all the same under the skin"], [[27 October]] [[2004]].

* Times Online, [https://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,8122-1331319,00.html "Gene tests prove that we are all the same under the skin"], [[27 October]] [[2004]].

* Michael J. Bamshad, Steve E. Olson [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000  "Does Race Exist?"], ''Scientific American'', December 2003

* Michael J. Bamshad, Steve E. Olson [https://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000  "Does Race Exist?"], ''Scientific American'', December 2003

* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/20/health/20GENE.html "Gene Study Identifies 5 Main Human Populations, Linking Them to Geography"], Nicholas Wade, ''NYTimes'', December 2002.  Covering

* [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/20/health/20GENE.html "Gene Study Identifies 5 Main Human Populations, Linking Them to Geography"], Nicholas Wade, ''NYTimes'', December 2002.  Covering

*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (December 2003 Issue) Does race exists ?].

*[https://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (December 2003 Issue) Does race exists ?].

* [http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=15042002-084051-5356r DNA Study published by United Press International showing how 30% of White Americans have at least one Black ancestor]

* [https://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=15042002-084051-5356r DNA Study published by United Press International showing how 30% of White Americans have at least one Black ancestor]

* Yehudi O. Webster [http://multiracial.com/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=213&Itemid=39 Twenty-one Arguments for Abolishing Racial Classification], ''The Abolitionist Examiner'', June 2000

* Yehudi O. Webster [https://multiracial.com/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=213&Itemid=39 Twenty-one Arguments for Abolishing Racial Classification], ''The Abolitionist Examiner'', June 2000

* [http://literature.sdsu.edu/nericcio/textmex.html The Tex(t)-Mex Galleryblog], An updated, online supplement to the University of Texas Press book (2007), [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/books/nertex.html Tex(t)-Mex]

* [https://literature.sdsu.edu/nericcio/textmex.html The Tex(t)-Mex Galleryblog], An updated, online supplement to the University of Texas Press book (2007), [https://www.utexas.edu/utpress/books/nertex.html Tex(t)-Mex]

* [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Opinion/Editorial/Cut_out_the_racism/articleshow/2208634.cms Times of India] - Article about Asian racism  

* [https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Opinion/Editorial/Cut_out_the_racism/articleshow/2208634.cms Times of India] - Article about Asian racism  

* [http://www.sussex.ac.uk/ir/documents/april_4_2007.pdf South China Morning Post] - Going beyond ‘sorry’

* [https://www.sussex.ac.uk/ir/documents/april_4_2007.pdf South China Morning Post] - Going beyond ‘sorry’

=== Others ===

=== Others ===

* [http://www.goodrumj.com/RFaqHTML.html Race FAQ by John Goodrum] (argues for the existence of races)

* [https://www.goodrumj.com/RFaqHTML.html Race FAQ by John Goodrum] (argues for the existence of races)

* [http://www.understandingRACE.org American Anthropological Association's educational website on race, geared for general public with links for primary school educators and researchers]

* [https://www.understandingRACE.org American Anthropological Association's educational website on race, geared for general public with links for primary school educators and researchers]

*[http://www.southwestern.edu/~greenmue/boas.htm Boas's remarks on race to a general audience]

*[https://www.southwestern.edu/~greenmue/boas.htm Boas's remarks on race to a general audience]

*[http://www.news-medical.net/?id=9530 Race differences in average IQ are largely genetic, 26-Apr-2005]

*[https://www.news-medical.net/?id=9530 Race differences in average IQ are largely genetic, 26-Apr-2005]

* Catchpenny mysteries of ancient Egypt, [http://www.catchpenny.org/race.html "What race were the ancient Egyptians?"], Larry Orcutt.

* Catchpenny mysteries of ancient Egypt, [https://www.catchpenny.org/race.html "What race were the ancient Egyptians?"], Larry Orcutt.

* Judy Skatssoon, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s1153697.htm "New twist on out-of-Africa theory"], ''ABC Science Online'', Wednesday, [[14 July]] [[2004]].

* Judy Skatssoon, [https://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s1153697.htm "New twist on out-of-Africa theory"], ''ABC Science Online'', Wednesday, [[14 July]] [[2004]].

* [http://www.bloodbook.com/world-abo.html Racial & Ethnic Distribution of ABO Blood Types] - bloodbook.com

* [https://www.bloodbook.com/world-abo.html Racial & Ethnic Distribution of ABO Blood Types] - bloodbook.com

*[http://www.snpa.nordish.net/racesofeurope.htm "The Races of Europe" by Carleton S. Coon] - collection of physical anthropological data on the indigenous European populations.

*[https://www.snpa.nordish.net/racesofeurope.htm "The Races of Europe" by Carleton S. Coon] - collection of physical anthropological data on the indigenous European populations.

*[http://www.jonentine.com/reviews/daily_mail_uk.htm Are White Athletes an Endangered Species? And Why is it Taboo to Talk About It?] Discussion of racial differences in athletics

*[https://www.jonentine.com/reviews/daily_mail_uk.htm Are White Athletes an Endangered Species? And Why is it Taboo to Talk About It?] Discussion of racial differences in athletics

*[http://kennethomura.tripod.com/asian_genes/ Asian Genes] This website discusses the genetic distance of different Asian groups.<!-- This website is important to this page because it explains the statements about Asian genetics made on this page.-->

*[https://kennethomura.tripod.com/asian_genes/ Asian Genes] This website discusses the genetic distance of different Asian groups.<!-- This website is important to this page because it explains the statements about Asian genetics made on this page.-->

*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html "Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective"] - The author argues that the evidence from forensic anthropology supports the idea of race.

*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html "Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective"] - The author argues that the evidence from forensic anthropology supports the idea of race.

*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/brace.html "Does Race Exist? An antagonist's perspective"] - The author argues that clinal variation undermines the idea of race.

*[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/brace.html "Does Race Exist? An antagonist's perspective"] - The author argues that clinal variation undermines the idea of race.

*[http://www.gnxp.com/MT2/archives/000873.html "Social construction of race"] - Blogger introduces different concepts of race and their implications.

*[https://www.gnxp.com/MT2/archives/000873.html "Social construction of race"] - Blogger introduces different concepts of race and their implications.

*[http://www.isteve.com/makingsense.htm "Making Sense of Race: A Race Is an Extremely Extended Family"] - The author explains race using the analogy of familial lineage and explores the opposing clinal and social construct views.

*[https://www.isteve.com/makingsense.htm "Making Sense of Race: A Race Is an Extremely Extended Family"] - The author explains race using the analogy of familial lineage and explores the opposing clinal and social construct views.

*[http://amorsite.sitesled.com/index_files/ConceptofRacialType.htm Concept of Racial Type explained with photographic evidence.]

*[https://amorsite.sitesled.com/index_files/ConceptofRacialType.htm Concept of Racial Type explained with photographic evidence.]