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'''Religion''' is the most rigid and unyielding of all [[human]] institutions, but it does tardily adjust to changing society. Eventually, evolutionary religion does reflect the changing mores, which, in turn, may have been affected by revealed religion. Slowly, surely, but grudgingly, does religion ([[worship]]) follow in the wake of [[wisdom]]--[[knowledge]] directed by experiential [[rationality|reason]] and illuminated by [[divine]] [[revelation]].[https://www.urantia.org/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=https://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper92.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper92.html&line=47#mfs]

'''Religion''' is the most rigid and unyielding of all [[human]] institutions, but it does tardily adjust to changing society. Eventually, evolutionary religion does reflect the changing mores, which, in turn, may have been affected by revealed religion. Slowly, surely, but grudgingly, does religion ([[worship]]) follow in the wake of [[wisdom]]--[[knowledge]] directed by experiential [[reason]] and illuminated by [[divine]] [[revelation]].[http://www.urantia.org/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=http://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper92.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper92.html&line=47#mfs]

'Religious '''studies''' is the [[Intellectual|academic]] field of multi-disciplinary study of [[religion|religious]] [[belief]]s, [[behavior]]s, and institutions. It describes, compares, interprets, and explains religion, emphasizing systematic, historically-based, and cross-cultural perspectives.

<center>For lessons on the [[topic]] of '''Tradition''', follow [https://nordan.daynal.org/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Tradition this link].</center>

While theologians attempt to understand the subject [[matter]] of religion from within a particular religious tradition, [[Intellectual|scholars]] of religion study [[human]] religious [[behavior]] and [[belief]] from outside any particular religious viewpoint. Religious studies draws upon multiple disciplines and their methodologies including [[anthropology]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[philosophy]], and [[history]] of religion.  

In its early years, it was known as '''Comparative Religion''' or the '''Science of Religion''' and, in the USA, there are those who today also know the field as the '''History of Religion''' (associated with methodological traditions traced to the University of Chicago in general, and in particular [[Mircea Eliade]], from the late 1950s through to the late 1980s). The field is known as ''Religionswissenschaft'' in Germany and ''Sciences de la religion'' in the French-speaking world.

 

 

 

In its early years, it was known as '''Comparative Religion''' or the '''Science of Religion''' and, in the USA, there are those who today also know the field as the '''[[History of Religion]]''' (associated with methodological traditions traced to the University of Chicago in general, and in particular [[Mircea Eliade]], from the late 1950s through to the late 1980s). The field is known as ''Religionswissenschaft'' in Germany and ''Sciences de la religion'' in the French-speaking world.

==Religious Studies vs. Theology==

==Religious Studies vs. Theology==

Western philosophy of religion, as the basic ancestor of modern religious studies, is differentiated from the many Eastern philosophical traditions by generally being written from a third party perspective. The scholar need not be a believer. [[Theology]] stands in contrast to the philosophy of religion and religious studies in that, generally, the scholar is first and foremost a believer employing both logic ''and'' scripture as evidence. At least one theologian has noted that one can study and analyze a symphony to understand it in great detail, but it is the listening that is of greatest significance.

Western [[philosophy]] of religion, as the basic ancestor of modern religious studies, is differentiated from the many Eastern philosophical traditions by generally being written from a third party perspective. The scholar need not be a believer. [[Theology]] stands in contrast to the philosophy of religion and religious studies in that, generally, the scholar is first and foremost a believer employing both [[logic]] ''and'' [[scripture]] as evidence. At least one theologian has noted that one can study and analyze a symphony to understand it in great detail, but it is the listening that is of greatest significance.

==Intellectual foundation and background==

==Intellectual foundation and background==

Before religious studies became a field in its own right (e.g., flourishing in the US as of the late-1960s), several key intellectual figures explored religion from a variety of perspectives. One of these figures was the famous pragmatist [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_James William James]. His 1902 [[Gifford Lectures|Gifford lectures]] and book ''The Varieties of Religious Experience'' examined religion from a psychological-philosophical perspective and is still influential today. His essay ''[[The Will to Believe]]'' defends the [[rationality]] of [[faith]].  

Before religious studies became a field in its own right (e.g., flourishing in the US as of the late-1960s), several key intellectual figures explored religion from a variety of perspectives. One of these figures was the famous [[Pragmatism|pragmatist]] [[William James]]. His [[1902]] [[Gifford lectures]] and book ''[[The Varieties of Religious Experience]]'' examined religion from a psychological-philosophical perspective and is still influential today. His essay ''[[The Will to Believe]]'' defends the rationality of faith.  

[[Max Weber]] studied religion from an economic perspective in ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', his most famous work. As a major figure in [[sociology]], he has no doubt influenced later sociologists of religion.

[[Max Weber]] studied religion from an economic perspective in ''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'', his most famous work. As a major figure in [[sociology]], he has no doubt influenced later sociologists of religion. [[Emile Durkheim]] also holds continuing influence as one of the fathers of sociology. He explored [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and [[Catholic]] attitudes and doctrines regarding suicide in his work ''Suicide''. In 1912 he published his most memorable work on religion, ''Elementary Forms of the Religious Life''.

[[Emile Durkheim]] also holds continuing influence as one of the fathers of sociology. He explored [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and [[Catholic]] attitudes and doctrines regarding suicide in his work ''Suicide''. In [[1912]] he published his most memorable work on religion, ''Elementary Forms of the Religious Life''.

==History of Religious Studies==  

==History of Religious Studies==  

Interest in the general study of religion dates back to at least [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] ([[ca.]] 550 [[Common Era|BCE]] &ndash; ca. 476 BCE) and [[Herodotus]] (ca. 484 BCE &ndash; 425 BCE). Later, during the [[Middle Ages]], [[Islam]]ic scholars studied [[Zoroastrianism|Persian]], [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Christianity|Christian]], and [[Hinduism|Indian]] belief and practice. The first history of religion was the ''Treatise on the Religious and Philosophical Sects'' (1127 CE), written by the Muslim scholar [[Muhammad al-Shahrastani]]. [[Peter the Venerable]], also working in the twelfth century, studied Islam and made possible a Latin translation of the [[Qur'an]].  

Interest in the general study of religion dates back to at least [[Hecataeus of Miletus]] ([[ca.]] 550 [[Common Era|BCE]] &ndash; ca. 476 BCE) and [[Herodotus]] (ca. 484 BCE &ndash; 425 BCE). Later, during the [[Middle Ages]], [[Islam]]ic scholars studied [[Zoroastrianism|Persian]], [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Christianity|Christian]], and [[Hinduism|Indian]] belief and practice. The first history of religion was the ''Treatise on the Religious and Philosophical Sects'' (1127 CE), written by the Muslim scholar [[Muhammad al-Shahrastani]]. [[Peter the Venerable]], also working in the twelfth century, studied Islam and made possible a Latin translation of the [[Koran|Qur'an]].  

Notwithstanding the long interest in the study of religion, the academic discipline Religious Studies is relatively new. Dr. Chris Partridge notes that the "first professorships were established as recently as the final quarter of the nineteenth century."[http://www.uccf.org.uk/yourcourse/rtsf/docs/academicstudyofreligion.pdf]  

Notwithstanding the long interest in the study of religion, the academic discipline Religious Studies is relatively new. Dr. Chris Partridge notes that the "first professorships were established as recently as the final quarter of the nineteenth century."[https://www.uccf.org.uk/yourcourse/rtsf/docs/academicstudyofreligion.pdf]  

In the nineteenth century, the study of religion was done through the eyes of science. [[Max Müller]] was the first Professor of Comparative Religion at [[Oxford University]], a chair created especially for him. In his ''Introduction to the Science of Religion'' (1873) he wrote that it is "the duty of those who have devoted their life to the study of the principal religions of the world in their original documents, and who value and reverence it in whatever form it may present itself, to take possession of this new territory in the name of true science."  

In the nineteenth century, the study of religion was done through the eyes of science. [[Max Müller]] was the first Professor of Comparative Religion at Oxford University, a chair created especially for him. In his ''Introduction to the Science of Religion'' (1873) he wrote that it is "the duty of those who have devoted their life to the study of the principal religions of the world in their original documents, and who value and reverence it in whatever form it may present itself, to take possession of this new territory in the name of true science."  

Partridge writes that "by the second half of the twentieth century the study of religion had emerged as a prominent and important field of academic enquiry." He cites the growing distrust of the empiricism of the nineteenth century and the growing interest in non-Christian religions and spirituality coupled with convergence of the work of social scientists and that of scholars of religion as factors involved in the rise of Religious Studies.  

Partridge writes that "by the second half of the twentieth century the study of religion had emerged as a prominent and important field of academic enquiry." He cites the growing distrust of the empiricism of the nineteenth century and the growing interest in non-Christian religions and spirituality coupled with convergence of the work of social scientists and that of scholars of religion as factors involved in the rise of Religious Studies.  

In the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], the term "religious studies" became common and interest in the field increased. New departments were founded and influential journals of religious studies were initiated (for example, ''Religious Studies and Religion''). In the forward to ''Approaches to the Study of Religion'', [[Ninian Smart]] wrote that "in the English-speaking world [religious studies] basically dates from the 1960s, although before then there were such fields as 'the comparative study of religion', the 'history of religion', the 'sociology of religion' and so on..."

In the 1960s and 1970s, the term "religious studies" became common and interest in the field increased. New departments were founded and influential journals of religious studies were initiated (for example, ''Religious Studies and Religion''). In the forward to ''Approaches to the Study of Religion'', [[Ninian Smart]] wrote that "in the English-speaking world [religious studies] basically dates from the 1960s, although before then there were such fields as 'the comparative study of religion', the 'history of religion', the 'sociology of religion' and so on..."

In the [[1980s]], in both [[UK|Britain]] and [[United States|America]], "the decrease in student applications and diminishing resources in the 1980s led to cut backs affecting religious studies departments." (Partridge) Later in the decade, religious studies began to pick up as a result of integrating religious studies with other disciplines and forming programs of study that mixed the discipline with more utilitarian study.

In the 1980s, in both UK and United States, "the decrease in student applications and diminishing resources in the 1980s led to cut backs affecting religious studies departments." Later in the decade, religious studies began to pick up as a result of integrating religious studies with other disciplines and forming programs of study that mixed the discipline with more utilitarian study.

Philosophy of religion uses philosophical tools to evaluate religious claims and doctrines.  Western philosophy has traditionally been employed by English speaking scholars.  (Some other cultures have their own philosophical traditions including [[Hinduism|Indian]], [[Islam|Muslim]], and [[Judaism|Jewish]].)  Common issues considered by the (Western) philosophy of religion are the existence of [[God]], belief and rationality, [[religious cosmology|cosmology]], and logical inferences of logical consistency from sacred texts.

Philosophy of religion uses philosophical tools to evaluate religious claims and doctrines.  Western philosophy has traditionally been employed by [[English]] speaking scholars.  (Some other cultures have their own philosophical traditions including Indian, Muslim, and Jewish.)  Common issues considered by the (Western) philosophy of religion are the existence of [[God]], [[belief]] and [[rationality]], [[cosmology]], and [[logic]]al [[inference]]s  from sacred texts.

Although philosophy has long been used in evaluation of religious claims (''i.e.'' [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Pelagius]]'s debate concerning original sin), the rise of [[scholasticism]] in the [[11th century]], which represented "the search for order in intellectual life" (Russell, 170), more fully integrated the Western philosophical tradition (with the introduction of translations of [[Aristotle]]) in religious study.

Although philosophy has long been used in evaluation of religious claims (''i.e.'' [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Pelagius]]'s debate concerning original sin), the rise of scholasticism in the 11th century, which represented "the search for order in intellectual life", more fully integrated the Western philosophical tradition (with the introduction of translations of [[Aristotle]]) in religious study.

There is some amount of overlap between subcategories of religious studies and the discipline itself.  Religious studies seeks to study religious phenomena as a whole, rather than be limited to the approaches of its subcategories.

There is some amount of overlap between subcategories of religious studies and the discipline itself.  Religious studies seeks to study religious phenomena as a whole, rather than be limited to the approaches of its subcategories.

===History of religion===

===History of religion===

The [[history of religions]] is not concerned with theological claims apart from their historical significance.  Some topics of this discipline are the [[historicity]] of religious figures, events, and the evolution of doctrinal matters.

The [[history of religions]] is not concerned with theological claims apart from their historical significance.  Some topics of this discipline are the historicity of religious figures, events, and the evolution of doctrinal matters.

===Sociology of Religion===

===Sociology of Religion===

[[Sociology of Religion]] is concerned with the social aspects of religion, both in theory and in practice.  Social structure, the relationship between individual practitioner and religious community, and the construction of meaning are a few of the concerns of the sociologist of religions.  [[Emile Durkheim]] was the forefather of the sociological study of religion. In 1912 he stated in ''The Elementary Forms of Religious Life'' that religion cannot be separated from society, and vice-versa. Simply put, for the sociologist of religions the social conditions in the local form of Heaven or Pantheon mirror the local social conditions on earth, also often the former act to justify the latter.<ref>Gustav Mensching ([[Rudolf Otto]]'s primary pupil in Germany), 1968. ''Soziologie der Religion'' ("Sociology of religion"), Germany: Bonn, p. 60ff (in German).

Sociology of Religion is concerned with the social aspects of religion, both in theory and in practice.  Social [[structure]], the relationship between individual practitioner and religious [[community]], and the construction of [[meaning]] are a few of the concerns of the sociologist of religions.  [[Emile Durkheim]] was the forefather of the sociological study of religion. In 1912 he stated in ''The Elementary Forms of Religious Life'' that religion cannot be separated from society, and vice-versa. Simply put, for the sociologist of religions the social conditions in the local form of Heaven or Pantheon mirror the local social conditions on earth, also often the former act to justify the latter.(Gustav Mensching - [[Rudolf Otto]]'s primary pupil in Germany), 1968. ''Soziologie der Religion'' ("Sociology of religion"), Germany: Bonn, p. 60ff (in German).

===Psychology of Religion===

===Psychology of Religion===

The [[psychology of religion]] is concerned with what psychological principles are operative in religious communities and practitioners.  [[William James]] was one of the first academics to bridge the gap between the emerging science of [[psychology]] and the study of religion.  A few issues of concern to the psychologist of religions are the psychological nature of [[religious conversion]], the making of religious decisions, and the psychological factors in evaluating religious claims.

The Psychology of Religion is concerned with what psychological principles are operative in religious communities and practitioners.  [[William James]] was one of the first academics to bridge the gap between the emerging science of [[psychology]] and the study of religion.  A few issues of concern to the psychologist of religions are the psychological nature of religious conversion, the making of religious decisions, and the psychological factors in evaluating religious claims.

 

The [[anthropology of religion]] is principally concerned with the common basic needs of man that religion fulfills.

===Cultural Anthropology of Religion===

===Cultural Anthropology of Religion===

==Similarities between modern science and mysticism==

==Similarities between modern science and mysticism==

[[Fritjof Capra]] in ''[[The Tao of Physics]]'', and others have noted parallels between [[quantum mechanics]] (particularly [[Bell's theorem]]) and various religious traditions, especially [[Vedanta]]. Philosopher [[Ken Wilber]] [[Wiktionary:aver|aver]]s that modern physics neither proves nor even supports a mystical worldview. However he also states that the founders of relativity and quantum theory were nearly all mystics who felt that science is not [[Wiktionary:antithetical|antithetical]] to such views. (Wilber, preface)

[[Fritjof Capra]] in ''The Tao of Physics'', and others have noted parallels between [[quantum mechanics]] (particularly [[Bell's theorem]]) and various religious traditions, especially [[Vedanta]]. Philosopher [[Ken Wilber]] avers that modern [[physics]] neither proves nor even supports a mystical worldview. However he also states that the founders of relativity and quantum theory were nearly all mystics who felt that science is not antithetical to such views.

==Influential figures==

==Influential figures==

*Phenomenologists tend to recognize the role of description in universal, a priori, or "eidetic" terms as prior to explanation by means of causes, purposes, or grounds; and

*Phenomenologists tend to recognize the role of description in universal, a priori, or "eidetic" terms as prior to explanation by means of causes, purposes, or grounds; and

*Phenomenologists tend to debate whether or not what Husserl calls the transcendental phenomenological epochê and reduction is useful or even possible.

*Phenomenologists tend to debate whether or not what Husserl calls the transcendental phenomenological epochê and reduction is useful or even possible. [https://www.phenomenologycenter.org/phenom.htm source]

[http://www.phenomenologycenter.org/phenom.htm source]

 

For the more general philosophical movement of phenomenology, see http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/.

For the more general philosophical movement of phenomenology, see the [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/ Phenomenology article] in the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.

===Functionalism===

===Functionalism===

==External links==

==External links==

*[http://rra.hartsem.edu/ The Religious Research Association]

*[https://rra.hartsem.edu/ The Religious Research Association]

*[http://www.sssrweb.org/ The Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (SSSR)]

*[https://www.sssrweb.org/ The Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (SSSR)]

*[http://www.americanreligion.org/ The Institute for the Study of American Religion]

*[https://www.americanreligion.org/ The Institute for the Study of American Religion]

*[http://www.warwick.ac.uk/sisr/English.htm The International Society for the Sociology of Religion]

*[https://www.warwick.ac.uk/sisr/English.htm The International Society for the Sociology of Religion]

===Academic Societies===

===Academic Societies===

*[http://www.aarweb.org/ AAR- American Academy of Religion].

*[https://www.aarweb.org/ AAR- American Academy of Religion].

*[http://www.easr.de/ EASR- European Association for the Study of Religions].

*[https://www.easr.de/ EASR- European Association for the Study of Religions].

*[http://www.iahr.dk/ IAHR-International Association for the History of Religion].

*[https://www.iahr.dk/ IAHR-International Association for the History of Religion].

*[http://www.cssr.org/ The Council of Societies for the Study of Religion].

*[https://www.cssr.org/ The Council of Societies for the Study of Religion].

*[http://www.naasr.com/ North American Association for the Study of Religion (NAASR)].

*[https://www.naasr.com/ North American Association for the Study of Religion (NAASR)].

*[http://www.sssrweb.org/ Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (SSSR)].

*[https://www.sssrweb.org/ Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (SSSR)].

===Online Works and Sources===

===Online Works and Sources===

*[http://www.as.ua.edu/rel/studyingreligion.html Studying Religion: An Introduction]

*[https://www.as.ua.edu/rel/studyingreligion.html Studying Religion: An Introduction]

*[http://www.as.ua.edu/rel/whystudyreligion.html What is the Academic Study of Religion? A Student's Perspective].

*[https://www.as.ua.edu/rel/whystudyreligion.html What is the Academic Study of Religion? A Student's Perspective].

*[http://falcon.jmu.edu/~omearawm/ph101willtobelieve.html ''The Will to Believe''].

*[https://falcon.jmu.edu/~omearawm/ph101willtobelieve.html ''The Will to Believe''].

*[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/122/story_12272.html ''Buddhism's Other Option''].

*[https://www.beliefnet.com/story/122/story_12272.html ''Buddhism's Other Option''].

*[http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2003/dalailama-similar-0917.html ''Dalai Lama enlists science in quest for 'a happy mind'''].

*[https://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2003/dalailama-similar-0917.html ''Dalai Lama enlists science in quest for 'a happy mind'''].

*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/godonbraintrans.shtml ''God on the Brain - transcript''].

*[https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2003/godonbraintrans.shtml ''God on the Brain - transcript''].

*[http://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/functionalism.htm Functionalism]

*[https://hirr.hartsem.edu/ency/functionalism.htm Functionalism]

*Partridge, Chris.  ''[http://www.uccf.org.uk/yourcourse/rtsf/docs/academicstudyofreligion.pdf The Academic Study of Religion]''

*Partridge, Chris.  ''[https://www.uccf.org.uk/yourcourse/rtsf/docs/academicstudyofreligion.pdf The Academic Study of Religion]''

*[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/146/story_14684_1.html?rnd=46 U.S. Hinduism Studies: A Question of Shoddy Scholarship]

*[https://www.beliefnet.com/story/146/story_14684_1.html?rnd=46 U.S. Hinduism Studies: A Question of Shoddy Scholarship]

*[http://www.indiacause.com/columns/OL_040912.htm Biases in Hinduism studies]

*[https://www.indiacause.com/columns/OL_040912.htm Biases in Hinduism studies]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: Religion]]

[[Category: Religion]]