Difference between revisions of "Science"

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(New page: '''Science''' (from the Latin {{lang|la|''scientia''}}, 'knowledge') is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as the organized body of [[knowl...)
 
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'''Science''' (from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|''scientia''}}, '[[knowledge]]') is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the [[scientific method]], as well as the organized body of [[knowledge]] gained through such [[research]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=science "science" defined by various dictionaries at "reference.com"]</ref><ref name="Popper 3">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|p=3}}</ref> Science as defined here is sometimes termed [[pure science]] to differentiate it from [[applied science]], which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs.
+
'''Science''' (from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|''scientia''}}, '[[knowledge]]') is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the [[scientific method]], as well as the organized body of [[knowledge]] gained through such [[research]].[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=science "science" defined by various dictionaries at "reference.com"] Science as defined here is sometimes termed [[pure science]] to differentiate it from [[applied science]], which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs.
  
 
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:  
 
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:  
 
*[[natural science#Natural sciences|natural sciences]], which study [[natural]] phenomena (including [[biology|biological life]]), and  
 
*[[natural science#Natural sciences|natural sciences]], which study [[natural]] phenomena (including [[biology|biological life]]), and  
 
*[[social sciences]], which study [[human behavior]] and [[society|societies]].  
 
*[[social sciences]], which study [[human behavior]] and [[society|societies]].  
These groupings are [[empirical]] sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on [[observable]] [[phenomena]] and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.<ref name="Popper 20">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|p=20}}</ref>
+
These groupings are [[empirical]] sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on [[observable]] [[phenomena]] and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.
  
[[Mathematics]], which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called [[formal science]], has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences.<ref name="Popper 3" /> It is similar to [[empirical]] sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]] rather than empirical methods.<ref name="Popper 10">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|pp=10–11}}</ref> Formal science, which also includes [[statistics]] and [[logic]], is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of [[hypotheses]], [[theories]], and [[physical law|laws]],<ref name="Popper 79">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|pp=79–82}}</ref> both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
+
[[Mathematics]], which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called [[formal science]], has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to [[empirical]] sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]] rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes [[statistics]] and [[logic]], is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of [[hypotheses]], [[theories]], and [[physical law|laws]],both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
  
 
== Etymology ==
 
== Etymology ==
  
The word '''science''' comes through the [[Old French]], and is derived from the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|''scientia''}} for [[knowledge]], which in turn comes from {{lang|la|''scio''}}. 'I know'. The [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] root means to discern or to separate, akin to [[Sanskrit]] {{transl|sa|''chyati''}}, he cuts off, [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{transl|grc|''schizein''}}, to split, Latin {{lang|la|''scindere''}}, to split.<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=science&searchmode=none Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online]</ref> From the [[Middle Ages]] to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], ''science'' or ''scientia'' meant any systematic recorded knowledge.<ref>{{cite book
+
The word '''science''' comes through the [[Old French]], and is derived from the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|''scientia''}} for [[knowledge]], which in turn comes from {{lang|la|''scio''}}. 'I know'. The [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] root means to discern or to separate, akin to [[Sanskrit]] {{transl|sa|''chyati''}}, he cuts off, [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{transl|grc|''schizein''}}, to split, Latin {{lang|la|''scindere''}}, to split. [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=science&searchmode=none Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online] From the [[Middle Ages]] to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], ''science'' or ''scientia'' meant any systematic recorded knowledge, The Natures of Science, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 0838633218 ''Science'' therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that ''[[philosophy]]'' had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to ''science'' also carries this meaning.
| first=Neville | last=MacMorris | year=1989
 
| title=The Natures of Science | pages=pp. 31&ndash;33
 
| publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press
 
| location=New York | id=ISBN 0838633218 }}</ref> ''Science'' therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that ''[[philosophy]]'' had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to ''science'' also carries this meaning.
 
  
 
From classical times until the advent of the modern era, "philosophy" was roughly divided into [[natural philosophy]] and [[moral philosophy]]. In the 1800s, the term ''natural philosophy'' gradually gave way to the term ''[[natural science]]''. Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which typically includes the [[physical science]]s and [[biological science]]s. The [[social sciences]], inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy, are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent that these disciplines use [[empirical method]]s. As currently understood, [[moral philosophy]] still retains the study of [[ethics]], regarded as a branch of philosophy.
 
From classical times until the advent of the modern era, "philosophy" was roughly divided into [[natural philosophy]] and [[moral philosophy]]. In the 1800s, the term ''natural philosophy'' gradually gave way to the term ''[[natural science]]''. Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which typically includes the [[physical science]]s and [[biological science]]s. The [[social sciences]], inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy, are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent that these disciplines use [[empirical method]]s. As currently understood, [[moral philosophy]] still retains the study of [[ethics]], regarded as a branch of philosophy.
  
Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to [[empirical]] study involving use of the scientific method.<ref>See, e.g. [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/science]. The first usage, which is fairly representative of standard dictionaries today, describes science as: "'''a.''' The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. '''b.''' Such activities restricted to a class of natural phenomena.  '''c.''' Such activities applied to an object of inquiry or study." From the American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2003 </ref>
+
Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to [[empirical]] study involving use of the scientific method.<ref>See, e.g. [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/science]. The first usage, which is fairly representative of standard dictionaries today, describes science as: "'''a.''' The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. '''b.''' Such activities restricted to a class of natural phenomena.  '''c.''' Such activities applied to an object of inquiry or study." From the American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company.
  
 
==Scientific method==
 
==Scientific method==
{{main|Scientific method}}
+
 
  
 
[[Image:Bohr model.svg|thumb|250px|The [[Bohr model]] of the [[atom]], like many ideas in the [[history of science]], was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by experiment.]]
 
[[Image:Bohr model.svg|thumb|250px|The [[Bohr model]] of the [[atom]], like many ideas in the [[history of science]], was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by experiment.]]
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== Philosophy of science==
 
== Philosophy of science==
{{main|Philosophy of science}}
 
  
 
The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge and its ethical implications. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive [[Scientific method#Philosophical issues|account of the scientific method]] that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the [[scientific community]] at large. (see: [[Problem of demarcation#Demarcation in contemporary scientific method|Problem of demarcation]])
 
The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge and its ethical implications. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive [[Scientific method#Philosophical issues|account of the scientific method]] that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the [[scientific community]] at large. (see: [[Problem of demarcation#Demarcation in contemporary scientific method|Problem of demarcation]])
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== Goal(s) of science ==
 
== Goal(s) of science ==
{{Unreferencedsection|date=July 2007}}
 
  
 
The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is to produce ''useful models of reality''.  To achieve this, one can form [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] based on ''observations'' that they make in the world.  By analyzing a number of related hypotheses, scientists can form general [[theory|theories]].  These theories benefit society or human individuals who make use of them.
 
The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is to produce ''useful models of reality''.  To achieve this, one can form [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] based on ''observations'' that they make in the world.  By analyzing a number of related hypotheses, scientists can form general [[theory|theories]].  These theories benefit society or human individuals who make use of them.
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Science is not a source of equivocal value judgments, though it can certainly speak to matters of [[ethics]] and public policy by pointing to the likely consequences of actions. What one projects from the currently most unequivocal scientific hypothesis onto other realms of interest is not a scientific issue, and the [[scientific method]] offers no assistance for those who wish to do so. Scientific justification (or refutation) for many things is, nevertheless, often claimed. Certain value judgments are intrinsic to science itself. For example, scientists value relative truth and knowledge, and the actual progress of science requires cooperation between scientists, and is highly intolerant of dishonesty. Cooperation and honesty are thus values which are intrinsic to the actual social practice of the scientific method itself.
 
Science is not a source of equivocal value judgments, though it can certainly speak to matters of [[ethics]] and public policy by pointing to the likely consequences of actions. What one projects from the currently most unequivocal scientific hypothesis onto other realms of interest is not a scientific issue, and the [[scientific method]] offers no assistance for those who wish to do so. Scientific justification (or refutation) for many things is, nevertheless, often claimed. Certain value judgments are intrinsic to science itself. For example, scientists value relative truth and knowledge, and the actual progress of science requires cooperation between scientists, and is highly intolerant of dishonesty. Cooperation and honesty are thus values which are intrinsic to the actual social practice of the scientific method itself.
 
 
  
 
== Scientific literature ==
 
== Scientific literature ==
{{main|Scientific literature}}
 
  
 
An enormous range of [[scientific literature]] is published in today's world. [[Scientific journal]]s communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most scientific journals cover a scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a [[scientific paper]]. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and dreams of scientists to a wider populace.  [[Science magazine]]s (e.g. [[NewScientist|New Scientist]], [[Scientific American]]) cater to the needs of a wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Additionally, [[science book]]s and magazines on [[science fiction]] ignite the interest of many more people. A significant fraction of literature in science is also available on the [[World Wide Web]]; most reputable journals and news magazines maintain their own [[website]]s. A growing number of people are being attracted towards the vocation of [[popular science|science popularization]] and [[science journalism]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
 
An enormous range of [[scientific literature]] is published in today's world. [[Scientific journal]]s communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most scientific journals cover a scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a [[scientific paper]]. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and dreams of scientists to a wider populace.  [[Science magazine]]s (e.g. [[NewScientist|New Scientist]], [[Scientific American]]) cater to the needs of a wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Additionally, [[science book]]s and magazines on [[science fiction]] ignite the interest of many more people. A significant fraction of literature in science is also available on the [[World Wide Web]]; most reputable journals and news magazines maintain their own [[website]]s. A growing number of people are being attracted towards the vocation of [[popular science|science popularization]] and [[science journalism]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
  
 
== Fields of science ==
 
== Fields of science ==
{{main|Fields of science}}
+
 
<!-- The organizational tables have been moved to the main article "Fields of science" -->
 
 
Science is broadly subdivided into the categories of [[natural science]]s and the [[social science]]s. There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as [[engineering]] and [[health science]]. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.
 
Science is broadly subdivided into the categories of [[natural science]]s and the [[social science]]s. There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as [[engineering]] and [[health science]]. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.
  
The status of social sciences as an empirical science has been a matter of debate in the 20th century, see [[Positivism dispute]].<ref>Critical examination of various positions on this issue can be found in [[Karl R. Popper]]'s ''The Poverty of Historicism''.</ref> Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the social and behavioural sciences accused by critics of being unscientific. In fact, many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist [[Percy W. Bridgman]],<ref>{{cite journal
+
The status of social sciences as an empirical science has been a matter of debate in the 20th century, see [[Positivism dispute]].<ref>Critical examination of various positions on this issue can be found in [[Karl R. Popper]]'s ''The Poverty of Historicism''.</ref> Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the social and behavioural sciences accused by critics of being unscientific. In fact, many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist [[Percy W. Bridgman]] What is Science? (Editorial), Journal of Theoretics
| last = Siepmann | first = J. P.
+
[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RPPh...61...77K]
| title=What is Science? (Editorial)
+
or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the [[University of Texas at Austin]],[http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/Definitions/economicsNOTscience.htm], Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.), The University of Texas to politicians like U.S. Senator [[Kay Bailey Hutchison]] and other co-sponsors, [http://www.asanet.org/page.ww?section=Advocacy&name=Social+Sciences+Under+Attack], Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate, American Sociological Association oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields.
| journal=Journal of Theoretics
 
| year=1999 | volume=3
 
| url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RPPh...61...77K
 
| accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the [[University of Texas at Austin]],<ref>{{cite web
 
| last=Richardson | first=R. H. (Dick) | date=January 28, 2001
 
| url=http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/Definitions/economicsNOTscience.htm
 
| title=Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.)
 
| publisher=The University of Texas at Austin
 
| accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> to politicians like U.S. Senator [[Kay Bailey Hutchison]] and other co-sponsors,<ref>{{cite web
 
| author=Staff | date=May 19, 2006
 
| url=http://www.asanet.org/page.ww?section=Advocacy&name=Social+Sciences+Under+Attack
 
| title=Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate  
 
| publisher=American Sociological Association
 
| accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields.
 
  
 
==Scientific institutions==
 
==Scientific institutions==
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== See also ==
 
== See also ==
{{Portal|Science|Nuvola apps kalzium.png}}
+
 
: ''Main lists: [[List of basic science topics]] and [[List of science topics]]''
 
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:.5em; font-size:90%;"
 
!Controversy
 
|
 
 
* [[Controversial science]]
 
* [[Controversial science]]
 
* [[Fringe science]]
 
* [[Fringe science]]
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* [[Scientific misconduct]]
 
* [[Scientific misconduct]]
 
* [[Scientific skepticism]] (cf. [[Pseudoskepticism]])
 
* [[Scientific skepticism]] (cf. [[Pseudoskepticism]])
 +
 
|-
 
|-
 
!History
 
!History
|
+
 
 
* [[History of science and technology]]
 
* [[History of science and technology]]
 
* [[Historiography of science]]
 
* [[Historiography of science]]
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* [[Scientific revolution]]
 
* [[Scientific revolution]]
 
* [[Scientific units named after people]]
 
* [[Scientific units named after people]]
 +
 
|-
 
|-
 
!Philosophy
 
!Philosophy
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* [[Rhetoric of science]]
 
* [[Rhetoric of science]]
 
* [[Scientific method]]
 
* [[Scientific method]]
|}
+
|
 
* [[History of science]] (how the various fields of science came to be)
 
* [[History of science]] (how the various fields of science came to be)
 
* [[Scientist]] (lists of people active in each of these fields)
 
* [[Scientist]] (lists of people active in each of these fields)
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* [[Technology]] (result of science)
 
* [[Technology]] (result of science)
 
* [[Science and technology]]
 
* [[Science and technology]]
{{-}}
 
 
==Notes==
 
<references/>
 
  
 
==References==
 
==References==
 
*Feyerabend, Paul K. 2005. ''Science, history of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
 
*Feyerabend, Paul K. 2005. ''Science, history of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
*Papineau, David. 2005. ''Science, problems of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
+
*Papineau, David. 2005. ''Science, problems of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Routledge Classics, ISBN 0-415-27844-9, oclc 59377149
*{{cite book
+
 
| last = Popper
 
| first = Karl
 
| authorlink = Karl Popper
 
| title = The Logic of Scientific Discovery
 
| origyear = 1959
 
| edition = 2nd English edition
 
| year = 2002
 
| publisher = Routledge Classics
 
| location = New York, NY
 
| isbn = 0-415-27844-9
 
| oclc =59377149
 
| pages = 3
 
}}
 
  
 
==Further reading==
 
==Further reading==
 
* [http://lipas.uwasa.fi/~ts/popsci.html A Book List of Popularized Natural and Behavioral Sciences]
 
* [http://lipas.uwasa.fi/~ts/popsci.html A Book List of Popularized Natural and Behavioral Sciences]
* Baxter, Charles {{PDFlink|[http://www.adihome.org/phpshop/pdf/articles/DIN_02_01_10.pdf "Myth versus science in educational systems"]|66.4&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 68033 bytes -->}}
+
* Baxter, Charles {{PDFlink|[http://www.adihome.org/phpshop/pdf/articles/DIN_02_01_10.pdf "Myth versus science in educational systems"]|66.4&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]
 
* "''[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57 Classification of the Sciences]''". Dictionary of the History of Ideas.  
 
* "''[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57 Classification of the Sciences]''". Dictionary of the History of Ideas.  
 
* Cole, K. C., "''Things your teacher never told you about science (Nine shocking revelations!); Maybe you think that science is devoted to gathering and cataloging facts, and that scientists are a dull, dreary lot who don't know how to have fun. Maybe you should think again.''". [[Newsday]], [[Long Island, New York]], March 23, 1986, pg 21+
 
* Cole, K. C., "''Things your teacher never told you about science (Nine shocking revelations!); Maybe you think that science is devoted to gathering and cataloging facts, and that scientists are a dull, dreary lot who don't know how to have fun. Maybe you should think again.''". [[Newsday]], [[Long Island, New York]], March 23, 1986, pg 21+
 
*Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., ''Science in the Twentieth Century'', Routledge 2003, ISBN 0-415-28606-9
 
*Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., ''Science in the Twentieth Century'', Routledge 2003, ISBN 0-415-28606-9
* MacComas, William F. {{PDFlink|[http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of%20Science.pdf "The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths"]|189&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 194054 bytes -->}} Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California. Direct Instruction News. '''Spring 2002''' 24–30.
+
* MacComas, William F. [http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of%20Science.pdf "The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths"]|189&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]<!-- application/pdf, 194054 bytes -->}} Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California. Direct Instruction News. '''Spring 2002''' 24–30.
 
* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml "Nature of Science"] University of California Museum of Paleontology
 
* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml "Nature of Science"] University of California Museum of Paleontology
*{{cite book| last = Obler | first = Paul C. | coauthors = Estrin, Herman A. | title = The New Scientist: Essays on the Methods and Values of Modern Science | publisher = Anchor Books, Doubleday | date = 1962}}
+
* The New Scientist: Essays on the Methods and Values of Modern Science, Anchor Books, Doubleday  
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Science}}
+
 
 
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.lms.ac.uk/policy/2003/Mathsescience03.pdf Math and e-Science]|120&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 123398 bytes -->}}
 
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.lms.ac.uk/policy/2003/Mathsescience03.pdf Math and e-Science]|120&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 123398 bytes -->}}
 
* http://www.newscientist.com/
 
* http://www.newscientist.com/
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* [http://scienceprojects4kids.net/ Science Projects for Kids] Easy and fun science projects that you can try at home with your kids. Great ideas for science fair projects!
 
* [http://scienceprojects4kids.net/ Science Projects for Kids] Easy and fun science projects that you can try at home with your kids. Great ideas for science fair projects!
 
* [http://sciencemadefun.org.uk Science Made Fun: Making science fun for people of all ages!]
 
* [http://sciencemadefun.org.uk Science Made Fun: Making science fun for people of all ages!]
 +
 +
[[Category: General Reference]]

Revision as of 15:35, 19 August 2007

Science (from the Latin Template:Lang, 'knowledge') is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as the organized body of knowledge gained through such research."science" defined by various dictionaries at "reference.com" Science as defined here is sometimes termed pure science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs.

Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:

These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

Mathematics, which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called formal science, has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic, is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws,both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).

Etymology

The word science comes through the Old French, and is derived from the Latin word Template:Lang for knowledge, which in turn comes from Template:Lang. 'I know'. The Indo-European root means to discern or to separate, akin to Sanskrit Template:Transl, he cuts off, Greek Template:Transl, to split, Latin Template:Lang, to split. Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, science or scientia meant any systematic recorded knowledge, The Natures of Science, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, ISBN 0838633218 Science therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to science also carries this meaning.

From classical times until the advent of the modern era, "philosophy" was roughly divided into natural philosophy and moral philosophy. In the 1800s, the term natural philosophy gradually gave way to the term natural science. Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which typically includes the physical sciences and biological sciences. The social sciences, inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy, are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent that these disciplines use empirical methods. As currently understood, moral philosophy still retains the study of ethics, regarded as a branch of philosophy.

Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to empirical study involving use of the scientific method.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the social and behavioural sciences accused by critics of being unscientific. In fact, many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist Percy W. Bridgman What is Science? (Editorial), Journal of Theoretics [1] or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the University of Texas at Austin,[2], Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.), The University of Texas to politicians like U.S. Senator Kay Bailey Hutchison and other co-sponsors, [3], Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate, American Sociological Association oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields.

Scientific institutions

Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance period. The oldest surviving institution is the Template:Lang in Italy. National Academy of Sciences are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British Royal Society in 1660 and the French Template:Lang in 1666.

International scientific organizations, such as the International Council for Science, have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently, influential government agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the National Science Foundation in the U.S.

Other prominent organizations include:

See also

|- !History

|- !Philosophy |

|

References

  • Feyerabend, Paul K. 2005. Science, history of the philosophy of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
  • Papineau, David. 2005. Science, problems of the philosophy of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford. The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Routledge Classics, ISBN 0-415-27844-9, oclc 59377149


Further reading

External links

Textbooks:

News:

Resources:

  • The Vega Science Trust Hours of science video including scientific lectures (Feynman, Kroto, Davis, etc.), discussions (nanotechnology, GM, stem cells, etc.), career programmes, interviews with Nobel Laureates, and school resources.
  • United States Science Initiative. Selected science information provided by U.S. Government agencies, including research and development results.

Fun science: