Difference between revisions of "The Sciences"

From Nordan Symposia
Jump to navigationJump to search
(New page: '''Science''' (from the Latin {{lang|la|''scientia''}}, 'knowledge') is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as the organized body of [[knowl...)
 
m (Text replacement - "http://" to "https://")
 
(14 intermediate revisions by one other user not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
'''Science''' (from the [[Latin]] {{lang|la|''scientia''}}, '[[knowledge]]') is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the [[scientific method]], as well as the organized body of [[knowledge]] gained through such [[research]].<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=science "science" defined by various dictionaries at "reference.com"]</ref><ref name="Popper 3">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|p=3}}</ref> Science as defined here is sometimes termed [[pure science]] to differentiate it from [[applied science]], which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs.
+
[[Image:lighterstill.jpg]]
 +
[[Image:Dm_map_1.jpg|right|frame]]
 +
 
 +
'''Science''' (from the [[Latin]] ''scientia'', '[[knowledge]]' is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the [[scientific method]], as well as the organized body of [[knowledge]] gained through such [[research]].[https://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=science "science" defined by various dictionaries at "reference.com"]. Science as defined here is sometimes termed [[pure science]] to differentiate it from [[applied science]], which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs.
  
 
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:  
 
Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:  
 
*[[natural science#Natural sciences|natural sciences]], which study [[natural]] phenomena (including [[biology|biological life]]), and  
 
*[[natural science#Natural sciences|natural sciences]], which study [[natural]] phenomena (including [[biology|biological life]]), and  
 
*[[social sciences]], which study [[human behavior]] and [[society|societies]].  
 
*[[social sciences]], which study [[human behavior]] and [[society|societies]].  
These groupings are [[empirical]] sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on [[observable]] [[phenomena]] and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.<ref name="Popper 20">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|p=20}}</ref>
+
These groupings are [[empirical]] sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on [[observable]] [[phenomena]] and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.
  
[[Mathematics]], which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called [[formal science]], has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences.<ref name="Popper 3" /> It is similar to [[empirical]] sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]] rather than empirical methods.<ref name="Popper 10">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|pp=10–11}}</ref> Formal science, which also includes [[statistics]] and [[logic]], is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of [[hypotheses]], [[theories]], and [[physical law|laws]],<ref name="Popper 79">{{Harvard citation|Popper|1959|pp=79–82}}</ref> both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
+
[[Mathematics]], which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called [[formal science]], has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to [[empirical]] sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]] rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes [[statistics]] and [[logic]], is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of [[hypotheses]], [[theories]], and [[physical law|laws]], both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).
  
 
== Etymology ==
 
== Etymology ==
  
The word '''science''' comes through the [[Old French]], and is derived from the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|''scientia''}} for [[knowledge]], which in turn comes from {{lang|la|''scio''}}. 'I know'. The [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] root means to discern or to separate, akin to [[Sanskrit]] {{transl|sa|''chyati''}}, he cuts off, [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{transl|grc|''schizein''}}, to split, Latin {{lang|la|''scindere''}}, to split.<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=science&searchmode=none Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online]</ref> From the [[Middle Ages]] to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], ''science'' or ''scientia'' meant any systematic recorded knowledge.<ref>{{cite book
+
The word '''science''' comes through the [[Old French]], and is derived from the [[Latin]] word {{lang|la|''scientia''}} for [[knowledge]], which in turn comes from {{lang|la|''scio''}}. 'I know'. The [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] root means to discern or to separate, akin to [[Sanskrit]] {{transl|sa|''chyati''}}, he cuts off, [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{transl|grc|''schizein''}}, to split, Latin {{lang|la|''scindere''}}, to split.[https://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=science&searchmode=none Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online]. From the [[Middle Ages]] to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], ''science'' or ''scientia'' meant any systematic recorded knowledge. The Natures of Science, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, New York, ISBN 0838633218 ''Science'' therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that ''[[philosophy]]'' had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to ''science'' also carries this meaning.
| first=Neville | last=MacMorris | year=1989
 
| title=The Natures of Science | pages=pp. 31&ndash;33
 
| publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press
 
| location=New York | id=ISBN 0838633218 }}</ref> ''Science'' therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that ''[[philosophy]]'' had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to ''science'' also carries this meaning.
 
  
 
From classical times until the advent of the modern era, "philosophy" was roughly divided into [[natural philosophy]] and [[moral philosophy]]. In the 1800s, the term ''natural philosophy'' gradually gave way to the term ''[[natural science]]''. Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which typically includes the [[physical science]]s and [[biological science]]s. The [[social sciences]], inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy, are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent that these disciplines use [[empirical method]]s. As currently understood, [[moral philosophy]] still retains the study of [[ethics]], regarded as a branch of philosophy.
 
From classical times until the advent of the modern era, "philosophy" was roughly divided into [[natural philosophy]] and [[moral philosophy]]. In the 1800s, the term ''natural philosophy'' gradually gave way to the term ''[[natural science]]''. Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which typically includes the [[physical science]]s and [[biological science]]s. The [[social sciences]], inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy, are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent that these disciplines use [[empirical method]]s. As currently understood, [[moral philosophy]] still retains the study of [[ethics]], regarded as a branch of philosophy.
  
Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to [[empirical]] study involving use of the scientific method.<ref>See, e.g. [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/science]. The first usage, which is fairly representative of standard dictionaries today, describes science as: "'''a.''' The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. '''b.''' Such activities restricted to a class of natural phenomena.  '''c.''' Such activities applied to an object of inquiry or study." From the American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2003 </ref>
+
Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to [[empirical]] study involving use of the scientific method.<ref>See, e.g. [https://www.thefreedictionary.com/science]. The first usage, which is fairly representative of standard dictionaries today, describes science as: "'''a.''' The observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of phenomena. '''b.''' Such activities restricted to a class of natural phenomena.  '''c.''' Such activities applied to an object of inquiry or study." From the American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2003
  
 
==Scientific method==
 
==Scientific method==
{{main|Scientific method}}
 
 
[[Image:Bohr model.svg|thumb|250px|The [[Bohr model]] of the [[atom]], like many ideas in the [[history of science]], was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by experiment.]]
 
  
 
The [[scientific method]] seeks to explain the complexities of [[nature]] in a replicable way, and to use these explanations to make useful [[prediction]]s.  It provides an objective process to find solutions to problems in a number of scientific and technological fields. Often [[scientist]]s have a preference for one outcome over another, and scientists are conscientious that it is important that this preference does not bias their interpretation. A strict following of the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of a scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. This can be achieved by correct experimental design, and a thorough peer review of the experimental results as well as conclusions of a study.  
 
The [[scientific method]] seeks to explain the complexities of [[nature]] in a replicable way, and to use these explanations to make useful [[prediction]]s.  It provides an objective process to find solutions to problems in a number of scientific and technological fields. Often [[scientist]]s have a preference for one outcome over another, and scientists are conscientious that it is important that this preference does not bias their interpretation. A strict following of the scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of a scientist's bias on the outcome of an experiment. This can be achieved by correct experimental design, and a thorough peer review of the experimental results as well as conclusions of a study.  
Line 34: Line 30:
  
 
== Philosophy of science==
 
== Philosophy of science==
{{main|Philosophy of science}}
 
  
 
The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge and its ethical implications. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive [[Scientific method#Philosophical issues|account of the scientific method]] that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the [[scientific community]] at large. (see: [[Problem of demarcation#Demarcation in contemporary scientific method|Problem of demarcation]])
 
The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge and its ethical implications. It has proven difficult to provide a definitive [[Scientific method#Philosophical issues|account of the scientific method]] that can decisively serve to distinguish science from non-science. Thus there are legitimate arguments about exactly where the borders are. There is nonetheless a set of core precepts that have broad consensus among published philosophers of science and within the [[scientific community]] at large. (see: [[Problem of demarcation#Demarcation in contemporary scientific method|Problem of demarcation]])
Line 45: Line 40:
  
 
== Mathematics and the scientific method ==
 
== Mathematics and the scientific method ==
[[Image:Bose Einstein condensate.png|right|thumb|300px|Velocity-distribution data of a gas of [[rubidium]] atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the [[Bose–Einstein condensate]].]]
+
 
 
[[Mathematics]] is essential to many sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific ''models''. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require mathematical models and extensive use of mathematics. Mathematical branches most often used in science include [[calculus]] and [[statistics]], although virtually every branch of mathematics has applications, even "pure" areas such as [[number theory]] and [[topology]]. Mathematics is fundamental to the understanding of the natural sciences and the social sciences, all of which rely heavily on statistics.  Statistical methods, comprised of accepted mathematical formulas for summarizing data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results.
 
[[Mathematics]] is essential to many sciences. One important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific ''models''. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require mathematical models and extensive use of mathematics. Mathematical branches most often used in science include [[calculus]] and [[statistics]], although virtually every branch of mathematics has applications, even "pure" areas such as [[number theory]] and [[topology]]. Mathematics is fundamental to the understanding of the natural sciences and the social sciences, all of which rely heavily on statistics.  Statistical methods, comprised of accepted mathematical formulas for summarizing data, allow scientists to assess the level of reliability and the range of variation in experimental results.
  
Line 51: Line 46:
  
 
== Goal(s) of science ==
 
== Goal(s) of science ==
{{Unreferencedsection|date=July 2007}}
 
  
 
The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is to produce ''useful models of reality''.  To achieve this, one can form [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] based on ''observations'' that they make in the world.  By analyzing a number of related hypotheses, scientists can form general [[theory|theories]].  These theories benefit society or human individuals who make use of them.
 
The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is to produce ''useful models of reality''.  To achieve this, one can form [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] based on ''observations'' that they make in the world.  By analyzing a number of related hypotheses, scientists can form general [[theory|theories]].  These theories benefit society or human individuals who make use of them.
Line 60: Line 54:
  
 
Some forms of technology have become so well established that it is easy to forget the great scientific achievements that they represent. The refrigerator, for example, owes its existence to a discovery that liquids take in energy when they evaporate, a phenomenon known as latent heat. The principle of latent heat was first exploited in a practical way in 1876, and the refrigerator has played a major role in maintaining public health ever since (see [[Refrigeration]]). The first automobile, dating from the 1880s, made use of many advances in physics and engineering, including reliable ways of generating high-voltage sparks, while the first computers emerged in the 1940s from simultaneous advances in electronics and mathematics.
 
Some forms of technology have become so well established that it is easy to forget the great scientific achievements that they represent. The refrigerator, for example, owes its existence to a discovery that liquids take in energy when they evaporate, a phenomenon known as latent heat. The principle of latent heat was first exploited in a practical way in 1876, and the refrigerator has played a major role in maintaining public health ever since (see [[Refrigeration]]). The first automobile, dating from the 1880s, made use of many advances in physics and engineering, including reliable ways of generating high-voltage sparks, while the first computers emerged in the 1940s from simultaneous advances in electronics and mathematics.
 
[[Image:Lab bench.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Part of a scientific laboratory at the [[University of Cologne]].]]
 
  
 
Other fields of science also play an important role in the things the developed world use or consume every day. Research in food technology has created new ways of preserving and flavoring of edible products (see [[Food processing]]). Research in industrial chemistry has created a vast range of plastics and other synthetic materials, which have thousands of uses in the home and in industry. Synthetic materials are easily formed into complex shapes and can be used to make machine, electrical, and automotive parts, scientific and industrial instruments, decorative objects, containers, and many other items.  
 
Other fields of science also play an important role in the things the developed world use or consume every day. Research in food technology has created new ways of preserving and flavoring of edible products (see [[Food processing]]). Research in industrial chemistry has created a vast range of plastics and other synthetic materials, which have thousands of uses in the home and in industry. Synthetic materials are easily formed into complex shapes and can be used to make machine, electrical, and automotive parts, scientific and industrial instruments, decorative objects, containers, and many other items.  
Line 82: Line 74:
  
 
== Scientific literature ==
 
== Scientific literature ==
{{main|Scientific literature}}
 
  
An enormous range of [[scientific literature]] is published in today's world. [[Scientific journal]]s communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most scientific journals cover a scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a [[scientific paper]]. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and dreams of scientists to a wider populace.  [[Science magazine]]s (e.g. [[NewScientist|New Scientist]], [[Scientific American]]) cater to the needs of a wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Additionally, [[science book]]s and magazines on [[science fiction]] ignite the interest of many more people. A significant fraction of literature in science is also available on the [[World Wide Web]]; most reputable journals and news magazines maintain their own [[website]]s. A growing number of people are being attracted towards the vocation of [[popular science|science popularization]] and [[science journalism]].{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
+
An enormous range of [[scientific literature]] is published in today's world. [[Scientific journal]]s communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most scientific journals cover a scientific field and publish the research within that field; the research is normally expressed in the form of a [[scientific paper]]. Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally considered necessary to communicate the achievements, news, and dreams of scientists to a wider populace.  [[Science magazine]]s (e.g. [[NewScientist|New Scientist]], [[Scientific American]]) cater to the needs of a wider readership and provide a non-technical summary of popular areas of research, including notable discoveries and advances in certain fields of research. Additionally, [[science book]]s and magazines on [[science fiction]] ignite the interest of many more people. A significant fraction of literature in science is also available on the [[World Wide Web]]; most reputable journals and news magazines maintain their own [[website]]s. A growing number of people are being attracted towards the vocation of [[popular science|science popularization]] and [[science journalism]].
  
 
== Fields of science ==
 
== Fields of science ==
{{main|Fields of science}}
+
 
<!-- The organizational tables have been moved to the main article "Fields of science" -->
+
The organizational tables have been moved to the main article "Fields of science"
 
Science is broadly subdivided into the categories of [[natural science]]s and the [[social science]]s. There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as [[engineering]] and [[health science]]. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.
 
Science is broadly subdivided into the categories of [[natural science]]s and the [[social science]]s. There are also related disciplines that are grouped into interdisciplinary and applied sciences, such as [[engineering]] and [[health science]]. Within these categories are specialized scientific fields that can include elements of other scientific disciplines but often possess their own terminology and body of expertise.
  
The status of social sciences as an empirical science has been a matter of debate in the 20th century, see [[Positivism dispute]].<ref>Critical examination of various positions on this issue can be found in [[Karl R. Popper]]'s ''The Poverty of Historicism''.</ref> Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the social and behavioural sciences accused by critics of being unscientific. In fact, many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist [[Percy W. Bridgman]],<ref>{{cite journal
+
The status of social sciences as an empirical science has been a matter of debate in the 20th century, see [[Positivism dispute]].<ref>Critical examination of various positions on this issue can be found in [[Karl R. Popper]]'s ''The Poverty of Historicism''.</ref> Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the social and behavioural sciences accused by critics of being unscientific. In fact, many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist [[Percy W. Bridgman]],[https://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RPPh...61...77K]
| last = Siepmann | first = J. P.
+
or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the [[University of Texas at Austin]],[https://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/Definitions/economicsNOTscience.htm]
| title=What is Science? (Editorial)
+
(Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.)
| journal=Journal of Theoretics
+
The University of Texas at Austin [https://www.asanet.org/page.ww?section=Advocacy&name=Social+Sciences+Under+Attack]
| year=1999 | volume=3
+
Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate, American Sociological Association
| url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998RPPh...61...77K
+
oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields.
| accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the [[University of Texas at Austin]],<ref>{{cite web
 
| last=Richardson | first=R. H. (Dick) | date=January 28, 2001
 
| url=http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/resource/onlinetext/Definitions/economicsNOTscience.htm
 
| title=Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.)
 
| publisher=The University of Texas at Austin
 
| accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> to politicians like U.S. Senator [[Kay Bailey Hutchison]] and other co-sponsors,<ref>{{cite web
 
| author=Staff | date=May 19, 2006
 
| url=http://www.asanet.org/page.ww?section=Advocacy&name=Social+Sciences+Under+Attack
 
| title=Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate  
 
| publisher=American Sociological Association
 
| accessdate=2007-07-23 }}</ref> oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields.
 
  
 
==Scientific institutions==
 
==Scientific institutions==
[[Image:Académie des Sciences 1671.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Louis XIV]] visiting the {{lang|fr|[[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des sciences]]}} in 1671.]]
 
  
[[Learned society|Learned societies]] for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the [[Renaissance]] period. The oldest surviving institution is the {{lang|it|''[[Accademia dei Lincei]]''}} in [[Italy]]. National [[Academy of Sciences]] are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British ''[[Royal Society]]'' in 1660 and the French {{lang|fr|''[[Académie des Sciences]]''}} in 1666.
+
[[Learned society|Learned societies]] for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the [[Renaissance]] period. The oldest surviving institution is the ''[[Accademia dei Lincei]]''in [[Italy]]. National [[Academy of Sciences]] are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British ''[[Royal Society]]'' in 1660 and the French''[[Académie des Sciences]]'' in 1666.
  
 
International scientific organizations, such as the ''[[International Council for Science]]'', have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently, influential government agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the ''[[National Science Foundation]]'' in the [[United States|U.S.]]
 
International scientific organizations, such as the ''[[International Council for Science]]'', have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently, influential government agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the ''[[National Science Foundation]]'' in the [[United States|U.S.]]
Line 119: Line 98:
 
* In Australia, [[CSIRO]]
 
* In Australia, [[CSIRO]]
 
* In France, {{lang|fr|[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique]]}}
 
* In France, {{lang|fr|[[Centre national de la recherche scientifique]]}}
* In Germany, [[Max Planck Society]] and {{lang|de|[[Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft]]}}
+
* In Germany, [[Max Planck Society]]
 
* In Spain, [[CSIC]]
 
* In Spain, [[CSIC]]
  
 
== See also ==
 
== See also ==
 
: ''Main lists: [[List of basic science topics]] and [[List of science topics]]''
 
: ''Main lists: [[List of basic science topics]] and [[List of science topics]]''
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:.5em; font-size:90%;"
+
 
!Controversy
 
|
 
 
* [[Controversial science]]
 
* [[Controversial science]]
 
* [[Fringe science]]
 
* [[Fringe science]]
Line 136: Line 113:
 
* [[Scientific misconduct]]
 
* [[Scientific misconduct]]
 
* [[Scientific skepticism]] (cf. [[Pseudoskepticism]])
 
* [[Scientific skepticism]] (cf. [[Pseudoskepticism]])
|-
+
 
!History
+
History
|
+
 
 
* [[History of science and technology]]
 
* [[History of science and technology]]
 
* [[Historiography of science]]
 
* [[Historiography of science]]
Line 147: Line 124:
 
* [[Scientific revolution]]
 
* [[Scientific revolution]]
 
* [[Scientific units named after people]]
 
* [[Scientific units named after people]]
|-
+
 
!Philosophy
+
Philosophy
|
+
 
 
* [[Philosophy of science]]
 
* [[Philosophy of science]]
 
* [[Rhetoric of science]]
 
* [[Rhetoric of science]]
 
* [[Scientific method]]
 
* [[Scientific method]]
|}
 
 
* [[History of science]] (how the various fields of science came to be)
 
* [[History of science]] (how the various fields of science came to be)
 
* [[Scientist]] (lists of people active in each of these fields)
 
* [[Scientist]] (lists of people active in each of these fields)
Line 174: Line 150:
 
* [[Technology]] (result of science)
 
* [[Technology]] (result of science)
 
* [[Science and technology]]
 
* [[Science and technology]]
{{-}}
 
  
==Notes==
+
==References==
<references/>
 
  
==References==
 
 
*Feyerabend, Paul K. 2005. ''Science, history of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
 
*Feyerabend, Paul K. 2005. ''Science, history of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
 
*Papineau, David. 2005. ''Science, problems of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
 
*Papineau, David. 2005. ''Science, problems of the philosophy of.'' Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
*{{cite book
 
| last = Popper
 
| first = Karl
 
| authorlink = Karl Popper
 
| title = The Logic of Scientific Discovery
 
| origyear = 1959
 
| edition = 2nd English edition
 
| year = 2002
 
| publisher = Routledge Classics
 
| location = New York, NY
 
| isbn = 0-415-27844-9
 
| oclc =59377149
 
| pages = 3
 
}}
 
  
 
==Further reading==
 
==Further reading==
* [http://lipas.uwasa.fi/~ts/popsci.html A Book List of Popularized Natural and Behavioral Sciences]
+
* [https://lipas.uwasa.fi/~ts/popsci.html A Book List of Popularized Natural and Behavioral Sciences]
* Baxter, Charles {{PDFlink|[http://www.adihome.org/phpshop/pdf/articles/DIN_02_01_10.pdf "Myth versus science in educational systems"]|66.4&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 68033 bytes -->}}
+
* Baxter, Charles {{PDFlink|[https://www.adihome.org/phpshop/pdf/articles/DIN_02_01_10.pdf "Myth versus science in educational systems"]  
* "''[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57 Classification of the Sciences]''". Dictionary of the History of Ideas.  
+
* "''[https://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57 Classification of the Sciences]''". Dictionary of the History of Ideas.  
 
* Cole, K. C., "''Things your teacher never told you about science (Nine shocking revelations!); Maybe you think that science is devoted to gathering and cataloging facts, and that scientists are a dull, dreary lot who don't know how to have fun. Maybe you should think again.''". [[Newsday]], [[Long Island, New York]], March 23, 1986, pg 21+
 
* Cole, K. C., "''Things your teacher never told you about science (Nine shocking revelations!); Maybe you think that science is devoted to gathering and cataloging facts, and that scientists are a dull, dreary lot who don't know how to have fun. Maybe you should think again.''". [[Newsday]], [[Long Island, New York]], March 23, 1986, pg 21+
 
*Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., ''Science in the Twentieth Century'', Routledge 2003, ISBN 0-415-28606-9
 
*Krige, John, and Dominique Pestre, eds., ''Science in the Twentieth Century'', Routledge 2003, ISBN 0-415-28606-9
* MacComas, William F. {{PDFlink|[http://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of%20Science.pdf "The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths"]|189&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 194054 bytes -->}} Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California. Direct Instruction News. '''Spring 2002''' 24–30.
+
* MacComas, William F. PDF link [https://earthweb.ess.washington.edu/roe/Knowability_590/Week2/Myths%20of%20Science.pdf "The principal elements of the nature of science: Dispelling the myths"] Rossier School of Education, University of Southern California. Direct Instruction News. '''Spring 2002''' 24–30.
* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml "Nature of Science"] University of California Museum of Paleontology
+
* [https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/nature/index.shtml "Nature of Science"] University of California Museum of Paleontology
*{{cite book| last = Obler | first = Paul C. | coauthors = Estrin, Herman A. | title = The New Scientist: Essays on the Methods and Values of Modern Science | publisher = Anchor Books, Doubleday | date = 1962}}
+
 
  
 
==External links==
 
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Science}}
+
 
* {{PDFlink|[http://www.lms.ac.uk/policy/2003/Mathsescience03.pdf Math and e-Science]|120&nbsp;[[Kibibyte|KiB]]<!-- application/pdf, 123398 bytes -->}}
+
* PDF link [https://www.lms.ac.uk/policy/2003/Mathsescience03.pdf Math and e-Science]
* http://www.newscientist.com/
+
* https://www.newscientist.com/
* http://www.sciam.com/
+
* https://www.sciam.com/
  
 
'''Textbooks''':
 
'''Textbooks''':
* "''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/GCSE_Science GSCE Science textbook]''". [[Wikibooks]].org
+
* "''[https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/GCSE_Science GSCE Science textbook]''". [[Wikibooks]].org
* [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=books Bookshelf]
+
* [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&DB=books Bookshelf]
  
 
'''News''':
 
'''News''':
* [http://www.brightsurf.com Brightsurf] Science News and Current Science Events
+
* [https://www.brightsurf.com Brightsurf] Science News and Current Science Events
* [http://www.newscientist.com Current Events]. [[New Scientist]] Magazine, Reed Business Information, Ltd.
+
* [https://www.newscientist.com Current Events]. [[New Scientist]] Magazine, Reed Business Information, Ltd.
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com ScienceDaily]
+
* [https://www.sciencedaily.com ScienceDaily]
  
 
'''Resources''':
 
'''Resources''':
* [http://www.vega.org.uk/ The Vega Science Trust] Hours of science video including scientific lectures (Feynman, Kroto, Davis, etc.), discussions (nanotechnology, GM, stem cells, etc.), career programmes, interviews with Nobel Laureates, and school resources.
+
* [https://www.vega.org.uk/ The Vega Science Trust] Hours of science video including scientific lectures (Feynman, Kroto, Davis, etc.), discussions (nanotechnology, GM, stem cells, etc.), career programmes, interviews with Nobel Laureates, and school resources.
* [http://www.science.gov United States Science Initiative]. Selected science information provided by U.S. Government agencies, including research and development results.
+
* [https://www.science.gov United States Science Initiative]. Selected science information provided by U.S. Government agencies, including research and development results.[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciences]
  
 
[[Category: General Reference]]
 
[[Category: General Reference]]
 +
[[Category: The Sciences]]

Latest revision as of 02:44, 13 December 2020

Lighterstill.jpg

Dm map 1.jpg

Science (from the Latin scientia, 'knowledge' is a system of acquiring knowledge based on the scientific method, as well as the organized body of knowledge gained through such research."science" defined by various dictionaries at "reference.com". Science as defined here is sometimes termed pure science to differentiate it from applied science, which is the application of scientific research to specific human needs.

Fields of science are commonly classified along two major lines:

These groupings are empirical sciences, which means the knowledge must be based on observable phenomena and capable of being tested for its validity by other researchers working under the same conditions.

Mathematics, which is sometimes classified within a third group of science called formal science, has both similarities and differences with the natural and social sciences. It is similar to empirical sciences in that it involves an objective, careful and systematic study of an area of knowledge; it is different because of its method of verifying its knowledge, using a priori rather than empirical methods. Formal science, which also includes statistics and logic, is vital to the empirical sciences. Major advances in formal science have often led to major advances in the physical and biological sciences. The formal sciences are essential in the formation of hypotheses, theories, and laws, both in discovering and describing how things work (natural sciences) and how people think and act (social sciences).

Etymology

The word science comes through the Old French, and is derived from the Latin word Template:Lang for knowledge, which in turn comes from Template:Lang. 'I know'. The Indo-European root means to discern or to separate, akin to Sanskrit Template:Transl, he cuts off, Greek Template:Transl, to split, Latin Template:Lang, to split.Etymology of "science" at Etymology Online. From the Middle Ages to the Enlightenment, science or scientia meant any systematic recorded knowledge. The Natures of Science, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, New York, ISBN 0838633218 Science therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. In other languages, including French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian, the word corresponding to science also carries this meaning.

From classical times until the advent of the modern era, "philosophy" was roughly divided into natural philosophy and moral philosophy. In the 1800s, the term natural philosophy gradually gave way to the term natural science. Natural science was gradually specialized to its current domain, which typically includes the physical sciences and biological sciences. The social sciences, inheriting portions of the realm of moral philosophy, are currently also included under the auspices of science to the extent that these disciplines use empirical methods. As currently understood, moral philosophy still retains the study of ethics, regarded as a branch of philosophy.

Today, the primary meaning of "science" is generally limited to empirical study involving use of the scientific method.Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag Discussion and debate abound in this topic with some fields like the social and behavioural sciences accused by critics of being unscientific. In fact, many groups of people from academicians like Nobel Prize physicist Percy W. Bridgman,[1] or Dick Richardson, Ph.D.—Professor of Integrative Biology at the University of Texas at Austin,[2] (Economics is NOT Natural Science! (It is technology of Social Science.) The University of Texas at Austin [3] Behavioral and Social Science Are Under Attack in the Senate, American Sociological Association oppose giving their support or agreeing with the use of the label "science" in some fields of study and knowledge they consider non-scientific or scientifically irrelevant compared with other fields.

Scientific institutions

Learned societies for the communication and promotion of scientific thought and experimentation have existed since the Renaissance period. The oldest surviving institution is the Accademia dei Linceiin Italy. National Academy of Sciences are distinguished institutions that exist in a number of countries, beginning with the British Royal Society in 1660 and the FrenchAcadémie des Sciences in 1666.

International scientific organizations, such as the International Council for Science, have since been formed to promote cooperation between the scientific communities of different nations. More recently, influential government agencies have been created to support scientific research, including the National Science Foundation in the U.S.

Other prominent organizations include:

See also

Main lists: List of basic science topics and List of science topics

History

Philosophy

References

  • Feyerabend, Paul K. 2005. Science, history of the philosophy of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.
  • Papineau, David. 2005. Science, problems of the philosophy of. Oxford Companion to Philosophy. Oxford.

Further reading


External links

Textbooks:

News:

Resources:

  • The Vega Science Trust Hours of science video including scientific lectures (Feynman, Kroto, Davis, etc.), discussions (nanotechnology, GM, stem cells, etc.), career programmes, interviews with Nobel Laureates, and school resources.
  • United States Science Initiative. Selected science information provided by U.S. Government agencies, including research and development results.[4]