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Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument ([[philosophy|philosophical]], [[ethnography|ethnographic]], [[history|historical]]) to help [[understanding|understand]], [[explanation|explain]], test, [[critic#critique|critique]], defend or promote any of a myriad of [[List of religious topics|religious topics]]. It might be undertaken to help the theologian

Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument ([[philosophy|philosophical]], [[ethnography|ethnographic]], [[history|historical]]) to help [[understanding|understand]], [[explanation|explain]], test, [[critic#critique|critique]], defend or promote any of a myriad of [[List of religious topics|religious topics]]. It might be undertaken to help the theologian

* understand more truly his or her own religious [[tradition]],<ref>See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, ''Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology'' 2nd ed.(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)</ref>

* understand more truly his or her own religious [[tradition]],<ref>See, e.g., Daniel L. Migliore, ''Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology'' 2nd ed.(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004)</ref>

* understand more truly another religious tradition,<ref>See, e.g., Michael S. Kogan, 'Toward a Jewish Theology of Christianity' in ''The Journal of Ecumenical Studies'' 32.1 (Winter 1995), 89-106; available online at [http://www.icjs.org/scholars/kogan.html]</ref>

* understand more truly another religious tradition,<ref>See, e.g., Michael S. Kogan, 'Toward a Jewish Theology of Christianity' in ''The Journal of Ecumenical Studies'' 32.1 (Winter 1995), 89-106; available online at [https://www.icjs.org/scholars/kogan.html]</ref>

* make [[comparative religion|comparisons]] between religious traditions,<ref>See, e.g., David Burrell, ''Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions'' (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)</ref>

* make [[comparative religion|comparisons]] between religious traditions,<ref>See, e.g., David Burrell, ''Freedom and Creation in Three Traditions'' (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1994)</ref>

* [[apologetics|defend]] a religious tradition,

* [[apologetics|defend]] a religious tradition,

See the main article on the [[History of theology]], particularly for the history of Jewish, Christian and Islamic theology.

See the main article on the [[History of theology]], particularly for the history of Jewish, Christian and Islamic theology.

The word ''theology'' comes from late middle English (originally applying only to Christianity) from French ''théologie'', from Latin ''theologia'', from [[Greek language|Greek]]: θεολογία, ''theologia'', from θεός, ''theos'' or [[God]] + λόγος or ''logos'', "[[word]]s", "[[saying]]s," or "[[discourse]]" ( + suffix ια, ''ia'', "state of", "property of", "place of").  The Greek word is literally translated as "to talk about God" from Θεός (Theos) which is God and logy which derives from [[logos]], though this raises the question of the meaning of the word "God".<ref>According to [http://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:wRxMIgqVQR0J:www.etymonline.com/index.php%3Fl%3Dd%26p%3D14+divine+etymology+shining&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us], "divine" coms ultimately from an Indo-European word meaning “shining.”</ref> The meaning of the word "theologia"/"theology" shifted, however, as it was used (first in Greek and then in Latin) in European Christian thought in the Patristic period, the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], before being taken up more widely.

The word ''theology'' comes from late middle English (originally applying only to Christianity) from French ''théologie'', from Latin ''theologia'', from [[Greek language|Greek]]: θεολογία, ''theologia'', from θεός, ''theos'' or [[God]] + λόγος or ''logos'', "[[word]]s", "[[saying]]s," or "[[discourse]]" ( + suffix ια, ''ia'', "state of", "property of", "place of").  The Greek word is literally translated as "to talk about God" from Θεός (Theos) which is God and logy which derives from [[logos]], though this raises the question of the meaning of the word "God".<ref>According to [https://64.233.169.104/search?q=cache:wRxMIgqVQR0J:www.etymonline.com/index.php%3Fl%3Dd%26p%3D14+divine+etymology+shining&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us], "divine" coms ultimately from an Indo-European word meaning “shining.”</ref> The meaning of the word "theologia"/"theology" shifted, however, as it was used (first in Greek and then in Latin) in European Christian thought in the Patristic period, the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], before being taken up more widely.

* The term θεολογια ''theologia'' is used in Classical Greek literature, with the meaning "discourse on the gods or [[cosmology]]".<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057&query=entry%3D%2348216&layout=&loc=qeologiko%2Fs Lidell and Scott's ''Greek-English Lexicon']'.</ref>

* The term θεολογια ''theologia'' is used in Classical Greek literature, with the meaning "discourse on the gods or [[cosmology]]".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057&query=entry%3D%2348216&layout=&loc=qeologiko%2Fs Lidell and Scott's ''Greek-English Lexicon']'.</ref>

* [[Aristotle]] divided theoretical philosophy into ''mathematike'', ''physike'' and ''theologike'', with the latter corresponding roughly to [[metaphysics]], which for Aristotle included discussion of the nature of the divine.<ref>[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.6.vi.html Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'', Book Epsilon.]</ref>

* [[Aristotle]] divided theoretical philosophy into ''mathematike'', ''physike'' and ''theologike'', with the latter corresponding roughly to [[metaphysics]], which for Aristotle included discussion of the nature of the divine.<ref>[https://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/metaphysics.6.vi.html Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'', Book Epsilon.]</ref>

* Drawing on Greek sources, the [[Latin]] writer [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] influentially distinguished three forms of such discourse: mythical (concerning the myths of the Greek gods), rational (philosophical analysis of the gods and of cosmology) and civil (concerning the rites and duties of public religious observance).<ref>As cited by Augustine, [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120106.htm ''City of God'', Book 6], ch.5.</ref>

* Drawing on Greek sources, the [[Latin]] writer [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] influentially distinguished three forms of such discourse: mythical (concerning the myths of the Greek gods), rational (philosophical analysis of the gods and of cosmology) and civil (concerning the rites and duties of public religious observance).<ref>As cited by Augustine, [https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120106.htm ''City of God'', Book 6], ch.5.</ref>

* [[Christian]] writers, working within the [[Hellenistic]] mould, began to use the term to describe their studies. It appears once in some [[biblical manuscript]]s, in the heading to the [[book of Revelation]]: ''apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy'', "the revelation of John the ''theologos''". There, however, the word refers not to John the "theologian" in the modern English sense of the word but - using a slightly different sense of the root ''logos'' meaning not "rational discourse" but "word" or "message" -  one who speaks the words of God, ''logoi toy theoy''.<ref>This title appears quite late in the manuscript tradition for the Book of Revelation: the two earliest citations provided in David Aune's ''Word Biblical Commentary 52: Revelation 1-5'' (Dallas: Word Books, 1997) are both 11th century - Gregory 325/Hoskier 9 and Gregory 1006/Hoskier 215; the title was however in circulation by the 6th century - see Allen Brent ‘John as theologos: the imperial mysteries and the Apocalypse’, ''Journal for the Study of the New Testament'' 75 (1999), 87-102.</ref>

* [[Christian]] writers, working within the [[Hellenistic]] mould, began to use the term to describe their studies. It appears once in some [[biblical manuscript]]s, in the heading to the [[book of Revelation]]: ''apokalypsis ioannoy toy theologoy'', "the revelation of John the ''theologos''". There, however, the word refers not to John the "theologian" in the modern English sense of the word but - using a slightly different sense of the root ''logos'' meaning not "rational discourse" but "word" or "message" -  one who speaks the words of God, ''logoi toy theoy''.<ref>This title appears quite late in the manuscript tradition for the Book of Revelation: the two earliest citations provided in David Aune's ''Word Biblical Commentary 52: Revelation 1-5'' (Dallas: Word Books, 1997) are both 11th century - Gregory 325/Hoskier 9 and Gregory 1006/Hoskier 215; the title was however in circulation by the 6th century - see Allen Brent ‘John as theologos: the imperial mysteries and the Apocalypse’, ''Journal for the Study of the New Testament'' 75 (1999), 87-102.</ref>

* Other Christian writers used this term with several different ranges of meaning.

* Other Christian writers used this term with several different ranges of meaning.

** Some Latin authors, such as [[Tertullian]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] followed Varro's threefold usage, described above.<ref>See Augustine reference above, and Tertullian, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.viii.ii.i.html ''Ad Nationes'', Book 2], ch.1.</ref>

** Some Latin authors, such as [[Tertullian]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] followed Varro's threefold usage, described above.<ref>See Augustine reference above, and Tertullian, [https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.viii.ii.i.html ''Ad Nationes'', Book 2], ch.1.</ref>

** In [[Church Fathers|patristic]] Greek sources, ''theologia'' could refer narrowly to devout and inspired knowledge of, and teaching about, the essential nature of God.<ref>[[Gregory of Nazianzus]] uses the word in this sense in his fourth-century [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-42.htm#P4178_1277213 ''Theological Orations'']; after his death, he was himself called 'the Theologian' at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] and thereafter in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] - either because his ''Orations'' were seen as crucial examples of this kind of theology, or in the sense that he was (like the author of the Book of Revelation) seen as one who was an inspired preacher of the words of God.  (It is unlikely to mean, as claimed in the [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-41.htm#P4162_1255901 ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers''] introduction to his ''Theological Orations'', that he was a defender of the divinity of Christ the Word.)  See John McGukin, ''Saint Gregory of Nazianzus: An Intellectual Biography'' (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2001), p.278.</ref>

** In [[Church Fathers|patristic]] Greek sources, ''theologia'' could refer narrowly to devout and inspired knowledge of, and teaching about, the essential nature of God.<ref>[[Gregory of Nazianzus]] uses the word in this sense in his fourth-century [https://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-42.htm#P4178_1277213 ''Theological Orations'']; after his death, he was himself called 'the Theologian' at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] and thereafter in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] - either because his ''Orations'' were seen as crucial examples of this kind of theology, or in the sense that he was (like the author of the Book of Revelation) seen as one who was an inspired preacher of the words of God.  (It is unlikely to mean, as claimed in the [https://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-41.htm#P4162_1255901 ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers''] introduction to his ''Theological Orations'', that he was a defender of the divinity of Christ the Word.)  See John McGukin, ''Saint Gregory of Nazianzus: An Intellectual Biography'' (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2001), p.278.</ref>

** In some [[medieval]] Greek and Latin sources, ''theologia'' (in the sense of "an account or record of the ways of God") could refer simply to the [[Bible]]. See e.g., [[Hugh of St. Victor]], ''Commentariorum in Hierarchiam Coelestem'', Expositio to Book 9: 'theologia, id est, divina Scriptura' (in [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne's]] ''[[Patrologia Latina]]'' vol.175, 1091C).</ref>

** In some [[medieval]] Greek and Latin sources, ''theologia'' (in the sense of "an account or record of the ways of God") could refer simply to the [[Bible]]. See e.g., [[Hugh of St. Victor]], ''Commentariorum in Hierarchiam Coelestem'', Expositio to Book 9: 'theologia, id est, divina Scriptura' (in [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne's]] ''[[Patrologia Latina]]'' vol.175, 1091C).</ref>

** In [[scholasticism|scholastic]] Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the [[doctrine]]s of the Christian religion, or (more precisely) the academic [[discipline]] which investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented in [[Peter Lombard]]'s ''[[Sentences]]'', a book of extracts from the Church Fathers).<ref>See the title of [[Peter Abelard]]'s [http://individual.utoronto.ca/pking/resources/abelard/Theologia_christiana.txt ''Theologia Christiana''], and - perhaps most famously, of [[Thomas Aquinas]]' ''[[Summa Theologica]]''</ref>

** In [[scholasticism|scholastic]] Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the [[doctrine]]s of the Christian religion, or (more precisely) the academic [[discipline]] which investigated the coherence and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the latter often as represented in [[Peter Lombard]]'s ''[[Sentences]]'', a book of extracts from the Church Fathers).<ref>See the title of [[Peter Abelard]]'s [https://individual.utoronto.ca/pking/resources/abelard/Theologia_christiana.txt ''Theologia Christiana''], and - perhaps most famously, of [[Thomas Aquinas]]' ''[[Summa Theologica]]''</ref>

* It is the last of these senses (theology as the rational study of the teachings of a religion or of several religions) that lies behind most modern uses (though the second - theology as a discussion specifically of a religion's or several religions' teachings about God - is also found in some academic and ecclesiastical contexts; see the article on [[Theology Proper]]).

* It is the last of these senses (theology as the rational study of the teachings of a religion or of several religions) that lies behind most modern uses (though the second - theology as a discussion specifically of a religion's or several religions' teachings about God - is also found in some academic and ecclesiastical contexts; see the article on [[Theology Proper]]).

== Theology and religions other than Christianity ==

== Theology and religions other than Christianity ==

In academic theological circles, there is some debate as to whether theology is an activity peculiar to the Christian religion, such that the word 'theology' should be reserved for [[Christian theology]], and other words used to name analogous discourses within other religious traditions.<ref>See, for example, the initial reaction of Dharmachari Nagapriya in his [http://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol3/buddhisttheology.html review] of Jackson and Makrasnky's ''Buddhist Theology'' (London: Curzon, 2000) in ''Western Buddhist Review 3''</ref> It is seen by some to be a term only appropriate to the study of religions that worship a [[deity]] (a ''theos''), and to presuppose belief in the ability to speak and [[reason]] about this deity (in ''logia'') - and so to be less appropriate in religious contexts which are organized differently (i.e. religions without a deity, or which deny that such subjects can be studied logically).  ([[Hierology]] has been proposed as an alternative, more generic term.)

In academic theological circles, there is some debate as to whether theology is an activity peculiar to the Christian religion, such that the word 'theology' should be reserved for [[Christian theology]], and other words used to name analogous discourses within other religious traditions.<ref>See, for example, the initial reaction of Dharmachari Nagapriya in his [https://www.westernbuddhistreview.com/vol3/buddhisttheology.html review] of Jackson and Makrasnky's ''Buddhist Theology'' (London: Curzon, 2000) in ''Western Buddhist Review 3''</ref> It is seen by some to be a term only appropriate to the study of religions that worship a [[deity]] (a ''theos''), and to presuppose belief in the ability to speak and [[reason]] about this deity (in ''logia'') - and so to be less appropriate in religious contexts which are organized differently (i.e. religions without a deity, or which deny that such subjects can be studied logically).  ([[Hierology]] has been proposed as an alternative, more generic term.)

=== Analogous discourses ===

=== Analogous discourses ===

* There is, within  [[Hindu philosophy]], a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God (termed [[Brahman]] in some schools of Hindu thought) and of the [[atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul). The [[Sanskrit]] word for the various schools of Hindu philosophy is [[Darshana]] (meaning, view or viewpoint).  [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava theology]] has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars in [[India]] for centuries, has in recent decades also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the [[Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies]] and [[Bhaktivedanta College]]. ''See also: [[Krishnology]]''

* There is, within  [[Hindu philosophy]], a solid and ancient tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the universe, of God (termed [[Brahman]] in some schools of Hindu thought) and of the [[atman (Hinduism)|Atman]] (soul). The [[Sanskrit]] word for the various schools of Hindu philosophy is [[Darshana]] (meaning, view or viewpoint).  [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnava theology]] has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars in [[India]] for centuries, has in recent decades also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the [[Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies]] and [[Bhaktivedanta College]]. ''See also: [[Krishnology]]''

* In [[Islam]], theological discussion which parallels Christian theological discussion is named "[[Kalam]]"; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration of [[Sharia|Islamic law]], or "[[Fiqh]]".  'Kalam ... does not hold the leading place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for "theology" in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam.' (L. Gardet)<ref>L. Gardet, '[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ei2/kalam.htm Ilm al-kalam]' in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'', ed. P.J. Bearman et al (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 1999).</ref> A number of Muslim theologians such as [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]], [[Al-Farabi|Alfarabi]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] (see [[Averroism]]) have had a significant influence on the development of Christian theology.

* In [[Islam]], theological discussion which parallels Christian theological discussion is named "[[Kalam]]"; the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the investigation and elaboration of [[Sharia|Islamic law]], or "[[Fiqh]]".  'Kalam ... does not hold the leading place in Muslim thought that theology does in Christianity. To find an equivalent for "theology" in the Christian sense it is necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as much as to kalam.' (L. Gardet)<ref>L. Gardet, '[https://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ei2/kalam.htm Ilm al-kalam]' in ''The Encyclopedia of Islam'', ed. P.J. Bearman et al (Leiden: Koninklijke Brill NV, 1999).</ref> A number of Muslim theologians such as [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]], [[Al-Farabi|Alfarabi]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]] (see [[Averroism]]) have had a significant influence on the development of Christian theology.

* In [[Judaism]] the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community and [[synagogue]], rather than within specialised academic institutions. Nevertheless Jewish theology has been historically very active and highly significant for Christian and Islamic Theology. Once again, however, the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be [[Rabbinical]] discussion of [[Jewish law]] and [[Midrash|Jewish Biblical commentaries]].

* In [[Judaism]] the historical absence of political authority has meant that most theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community and [[synagogue]], rather than within specialised academic institutions. Nevertheless Jewish theology has been historically very active and highly significant for Christian and Islamic Theology. Once again, however, the Jewish analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be [[Rabbinical]] discussion of [[Jewish law]] and [[Midrash|Jewish Biblical commentaries]].

== External links ==

== External links ==

* [http://www.conservativetheologicalresearch.com/ Conservative Theological Research]

* [https://www.conservativetheologicalresearch.com/ Conservative Theological Research]

* [http://www.theologian.org.uk/ The Theologian: the internet journal for integrated theology]

* [https://www.theologian.org.uk/ The Theologian: the internet journal for integrated theology]

* [http://www.ccel.org/index/classics.html Christian Classics Library]

* [https://www.ccel.org/index/classics.html Christian Classics Library]

[http://www.cedu.niu.edu/lepf/edpsych/faculty/roberts/Entheogens-Sacramentals-or-Sacrilege-draft-11e.doc University course: Entheogens — Sacramentals or Sacrilege?]

[https://www.cedu.niu.edu/lepf/edpsych/faculty/roberts/Entheogens-Sacramentals-or-Sacrilege-draft-11e.doc University course: Entheogens — Sacramentals or Sacrilege?]

[[Category: General Reference]]

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[[Category: Religion]]

[[Category: Religion]]