Changes

'''Wisdom''', according to the [[Merriam-Webster]] dictionary, is defined as the "1 a: Accumulated philosophic or scientific learning-knowledge; b: Ability to discern inner qualities and relationships-insight; c: Good sense-judgment d: Generally accepted belief <challenges what has become accepted wisdom among many historians — [[Robert Darnton]]>. 2: A wise attitude, belief, or course of action. 3: The teachings of the ancient wise men"<ref name = "MW">[http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/wisdom  Wisdom], Merriam-Webſter.</ref>.

'''Wisdom''', according to the [[Merriam-Webster]] dictionary, is defined as the "1 a: Accumulated philosophic or scientific learning-knowledge; b: Ability to discern inner qualities and relationships-insight; c: Good sense-judgment d: Generally accepted belief challenges what has become accepted wisdom among many historians — [[Robert Darnton]]. 2: A wise attitude, belief, or course of action. 3: The teachings of the ancient wise men"[https://www.m-w.com/dictionary/wisdom  Wisdom], Merriam-Webſter.

 

There are just three elements in universal reality: fact, idea, and relation. The religious consciousness identifies these realities as science, philosophy, and truth. Philosophy would be inclined to view these activities as reason, '''wisdom''', and faith--physical reality, intellectual reality, and spiritual reality. We are in the habit of designating these realities as thing, meaning, and value.([[196:3]])

Most psychologists regard wisdom as distinct from the cognitive abilities measured by standardized [[intelligence]] tests. Wisdom is often considered to be a trait that can be developed by experience, but not taught.  

Most psychologists regard wisdom as distinct from the cognitive abilities measured by standardized [[intelligence]] tests. Wisdom is often considered to be a trait that can be developed by experience, but not taught.  

When applied to practical matters, the term wisdom is synonymous with [[prudence]]. Some see wisdom as a quality that even a child, otherwise immature, may possess independent of experience or complete knowledge.  The status of wisdom or prudence as a [[virtue]] is recognized in [[cultural]], [[philosophical]] and [[religious]] sources. Some define wisdom in a [[utilitarian]] sense, as foreseeing consequences and acting to maximize the long-term common [[goodness|good]].{{Fact|date=March 2007}}

When applied to practical matters, the term wisdom is synonymous with [[prudence]]. Some see wisdom as a quality that even a child, otherwise immature, may possess independent of experience or complete knowledge.  The status of wisdom or prudence as a [[virtue]] is recognized in [[cultural]], [[philosophical]] and [[religious]] sources. Some define wisdom in a [[utilitarian]] sense, as foreseeing consequences and acting to maximize the long-term common [[goodness|good]].

As such, in general, wisdom is looked at his/her ideals and principles that govern all actions and decisions. Applications of personal wisdom include one's ethical and social guidelines in life that determines one’s unique style of personality, the particular nature of short and long-term goal(s) pursued in life (spiritual or materialistic for example), perspective on life, social attitudes, etc.  

As such, in general, wisdom is looked at his/her ideals and principles that govern all actions and decisions. Applications of personal wisdom include one's ethical and social guidelines in life that determines one’s unique style of personality, the particular nature of short and long-term goal(s) pursued in life (spiritual or materialistic for example), perspective on life, social attitudes, etc.  

==Philosophical perspectives==

==Philosophical perspectives==

A standard [[philosophy|philosophical]] definition says that wisdom consists of making the best use of available [[propositional knowledge|knowledge]]. As with any decision, a wise decision may be made with incomplete [[information]]{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. The technical philosophical term for the opposite of wisdom is [[Folly (disambiguation)|folly]].{{Fact|date=March 2007}}

A standard [[philosophy|philosophical]] definition says that wisdom consists of making the best use of available [[propositional knowledge|knowledge]]. As with any decision, a wise decision may be made with incomplete [[information]]. The technical philosophical term for the opposite of wisdom is [[folly]].

In his ''[[Metaphysics]]'', [[Aristotle]] defines wisdom as knowledge of causes: ''why'' things exist in a particular fashion.

In his ''[[Metaphysics]]'', [[Aristotle]] defines wisdom as knowledge of causes: ''why'' things exist in a particular fashion.

In addition to experience there are a variety of other avenues to gaining wisdom. For example, [[Freethought|Freethinkers]] and others believe that wisdom may come from pure [[reason]] and perhaps experience, while others believe that it comes from [[intuition (knowledge)|intuition]] or [[spirituality]].{{Fact|date=March 2007}}

In addition to experience there are a variety of other avenues to gaining wisdom. For example, [[Freethought|Freethinkers]] and others believe that wisdom may come from pure [[reason]] and perhaps experience, while others believe that it comes from [[intuition (knowledge)|intuition]] or [[spirituality]].

Beginning with the ancient Greeks, European culture associates wisdom with [[virtue]]. [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]] and [[Athene]] are associated with wisdom from earliest times. For example, many philosophers talk about the virtue of wisdom in relation to courage and moderation, and in the [[Roman Catholic]] church, wisdom ([[Prudence]]) stands with [[justice]], [[fortitude]] and [[moderation]] as one of the four [[cardinal virtues]]. [[Plato]]'s dialogues mention the virtue of wisdom, as knowledge about the Good and the [[courage]] to act accordingly.  The [[Good]] would be about the right relations between all that exists.  The Good, as a Platonic [[Form]], would involve the perfect ideas of good government, love, friendship, community, and a right relation to the Divine.  Perhaps the search or love of wisdom is more important than any proven claim.  Socrates only claimed to know that he did not know, but this he was very certain of, and he showed the many contradictions in the claims of his fellow citizens{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.

Beginning with the ancient Greeks, European culture associates wisdom with [[virtue]]. [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]] and [[Athene]] are associated with wisdom from earliest times. For example, many philosophers talk about the virtue of wisdom in relation to courage and moderation, and in the [[Roman Catholic]] church, wisdom ([[Prudence]]) stands with [[justice]], [[fortitude]] and [[moderation]] as one of the four [[cardinal virtues]]. [[Plato]]'s dialogues mention the virtue of wisdom, as knowledge about the Good and the [[courage]] to act accordingly.  The [[Good]] would be about the right relations between all that exists.  The Good, as a Platonic [[Form]], would involve the perfect ideas of good government, love, friendship, community, and a right relation to the Divine.  Perhaps the search or love of wisdom is more important than any proven claim.  Socrates only claimed to know that he did not know, but this he was very certain of, and he showed the many contradictions in the claims of his fellow citizens.

[[Holistic|Holists]] believe that wise people sense, work with and align themselves and others to [[life]]. In this view, wise people help others appreciate the fundamental [[interconnectedness]] of life{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.

[[Holistic|Holists]] believe that wise people sense, work with and align themselves and others to [[life]]. In this view, wise people help others appreciate the fundamental [[interconnectedness]] of life.

[[Thoreau]] believed that “it is a characteristic of wisdom not to do desperate things{{Fact|date=May 2007}}.”

[[Thoreau]] believed that “it is a characteristic of wisdom not to do desperate things.”

[[Nicholas Maxwell]], a modern philosopher, argued that the basic aim of academic inquiry ought to be to seek and promote wisdom — wisdom being construed to be the capacity to realize what is of value in life for oneself and others, wisdom thus including knowledge and technological know-how, but much else besides.<ref name = "Maxwell">[http://www.nick-maxwell.demon.co.uk  MAXWELL, Nicholas].</ref>

[[Nicholas Maxwell]], a modern philosopher, argued that the basic aim of academic inquiry ought to be to seek and promote wisdom — wisdom being construed to be the capacity to realize what is of value in life for oneself and others, wisdom thus including knowledge and technological know-how, but much else besides.<ref name = "Maxwell">[https://www.nick-maxwell.demon.co.uk  MAXWELL, Nicholas].

==Scientific perspectives==  

==Scientific perspectives==  

Some may  find the [[scientific method]]<ref>

Some may  find the [[scientific method]]

[[William Stanley Jevons]] (1873, 1877) ''The Principles of Science: a treatise on logic and scientific method'' Dover edition, with a new preface by [[Ernest Nagel]] (1958)  

[[William Stanley Jevons]] (1873, 1877) ''The Principles of Science: a treatise on logic and scientific method'' Dover edition, with a new preface by [[Ernest Nagel]] (1958) to be a satisfactory path to a goal of gaining wisdom.

</ref> to be a satisfactory path to a goal of gaining wisdom.

==Psychological perspectives==

==Psychological perspectives==

Psychologists have gathered data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom.<ref>Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607–62.</ref>

Psychologists have gathered data on commonly held beliefs or folk theories about wisdom. Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Implicit theories of intelligence, creativity, and wisdom. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 607–62.

These analyzes indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is a distinct term and not a composite of other terms."<ref>Brown, S. C., & Greene, J. A. (2006). The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete.  Journal of College Student Development, 47, 1–19.</ref>

These analyzes indicate that although "there is an overlap of the implicit theory of wisdom with intelligence, perceptiveness, spirituality and shrewdness, it is evident that wisdom is a distinct term and not a composite of other terms."<ref>Brown, S. C., & Greene, J. A. (2006). The Wisdom Development Scale: Translating the conceptual to the concrete.  Journal of College Student Development, 47, 1–19.

Personality theorist [[Erik Erikson]] related wisdom to the last stage of his eight-stage theory of psychosocial development. Erikson's theory spans the entire lifespan and frames each stage in the form of internally-generated questions or tensions. Erikson claimed that in the last stage of human development, from approximately 65 years to death, individuals must resolve a psychological conflict between integrity and despair. He proposed that attaining wisdom is a favorable resolution and product of this conflict.

Personality theorist [[Erik Erikson]] related wisdom to the last stage of his eight-stage theory of psychosocial development. Erikson's theory spans the entire lifespan and frames each stage in the form of internally-generated questions or tensions. Erikson claimed that in the last stage of human development, from approximately 65 years to death, individuals must resolve a psychological conflict between integrity and despair. He proposed that attaining wisdom is a favorable resolution and product of this conflict.

which we call wisdom… Not that each man can evolve wisdom for himself…

which we call wisdom… Not that each man can evolve wisdom for himself…

To whatever abyss ultimate concerns may lead individual men, man as a psychological creature will face,

To whatever abyss ultimate concerns may lead individual men, man as a psychological creature will face,

toward the end of his life, a new edition of the identity crisis which we may state by the words 'I am what survives me'.”<ref>Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis (pp. 140–41). New York: Norton.</ref>

toward the end of his life, a new edition of the identity crisis which we may state by the words 'I am what survives me'.” Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis (pp. 140–41). New York: Norton.

Thus, within Eriksonian theory, wisdom universally surfaces as an optimal potential outcome of the human experience.

Thus, within Eriksonian theory, wisdom universally surfaces as an optimal potential outcome of the human experience.

In the 1970s, Vivian Clayton pioneered the academic study of wisdom.  Clayton "is generally recognized as the first psychologist to ask, in even faintly scientific terms, 'What does wisdom mean, and how does age affect it?'"<ref>

In the 1970s, Vivian Clayton pioneered the academic study of wisdom.  Clayton "is generally recognized as the first psychologist to ask, in even faintly scientific terms, 'What does wisdom mean, and how does age affect it?'"

{{Citation| last =Hall| first =Stephen S.| title =The Older-and-Wiser Hypothesis| newspaper =[[The New York Times Magazine]]| pages =61| year =2007| date =May 6, 2007| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/06/magazine/06Wisdom-t.html?ex=1336104000&en=4b4959cf047f61fe&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss}}</ref>  Clayton's work caught the attention of [[Paul Baltes]], who later founded the Berlin Wisdom Project at the [[Max Planck Institute for Human Development]] in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]].  Another wisdom researcher, [[Sociology|sociologist]] Monika Ardelt, has developed a [http://www.nytimes.com/ref/magazine/20070430_WISDOM.html "Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale"], a test that individuals can take for a numerical assessment of their wisdom on a scale of one to five.  The number of academic publications about wisdom increased significantly from 1984 to 2000.  Nevertheless, according to Jacqui Smith, one of Baltes's collaborators, the subject is not completely accepted in academia.<ref>

The Older-and-Wiser Hypothesis [[The New York Times Magazine]][https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/06/magazine/06Wisdom-t.html?ex=1336104000&en=4b4959cf047f61fe&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss] Clayton's work caught the attention of [[Paul Baltes]], who later founded the Berlin Wisdom Project at the [[Max Planck Institute for Human Development]] in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]].  Another wisdom researcher, [[Sociology|sociologist]] Monika Ardelt, has developed a [https://www.nytimes.com/ref/magazine/20070430_WISDOM.html "Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale"], a test that individuals can take for a numerical assessment of their wisdom on a scale of one to five.  The number of academic publications about wisdom increased significantly from 1984 to 2000.  Nevertheless, according to Jacqui Smith, one of Baltes's collaborators, the subject is not completely accepted in academia.The Older-and-Wiser Hypothesis| newspaper =[[The New York Times Magazine]] [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/06/magazine/06Wisdom-t.html?ex=1336104000&en=4b4959cf047f61fe&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss]

{{Citation| last =Hall| first =Stephen S.| title =The Older-and-Wiser Hypothesis| newspaper =[[The New York Times Magazine]]| pages =62| year =2007| date =May 6, 2007| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/06/magazine/06Wisdom-t.html?ex=1336104000&en=4b4959cf047f61fe&ei=5088&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss}}</ref>

==Religious perspectives==

==Religious perspectives==

 

Some religions have specific teachings relating to wisdom. In [[Mesopotamian mythology|Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology]] [[Enki]], also known as Ea, was the God of wisdom and intelligence. Wisdom was achieved by restoring balance.

Some religions have specific teachings relating to wisdom. In [[Mesopotamian mythology|Mesopotamian Religion and Mythology]] [[Enki]], also known as Ea, was the God of wisdom and intelligence. Wisdom was achieved by restoring balance.

In [[Islam]], according to the [[Qur'an]] Prophet [[Muhammed]] was chosen by God to represent his wisdom. The Prophet [[Muhammad]] said that: "Fearing [[God]] in your actions and intentions, and knowing that Almighty [[God]] is watching you wherever and whenever you are is the head/peak of wisdom"{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. In addition, Islam also mentions that a wise man with the name of [[Luqman (person)|''Luqman'']] once told his son to: "Sit with the learned men and keep close to them. [[Allah]] gives life to the hearts with the light of wisdom as Allah gives life to the dead earth with the abundant rain of the sky"[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/059.mmt.html#059.59.1.1].

In [[Islam]], according to the [[Qur'an]] Prophet [[Muhammed]] was chosen by God to represent his wisdom. The Prophet [[Muhammad]] said that: "Fearing [[God]] in your actions and intentions, and knowing that Almighty [[God]] is watching you wherever and whenever you are is the head/peak of wisdom"{{Fact|date=March 2007}}. In addition, Islam also mentions that a wise man with the name of [[Luqman (person)|''Luqman'']] once told his son to: "Sit with the learned men and keep close to them. [[Allah]] gives life to the hearts with the light of wisdom as Allah gives life to the dead earth with the abundant rain of the sky"[https://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/059.mmt.html#059.59.1.1].

In the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], the [[magi]] (or "wise men") are sent by God to give the newly born [[Jesus]] three types of gifts. Wisdom is also represented by the sense of justice of the lawful and wise king [[Solomon]], who asks God for wisdom in [[1 Kings]] 3. [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] 9:10 says: "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom," and 8:13 "To fear the Lord is to hate evil;". The Catholic and Orthodox [[deuterocanonical books]] of the Bible include the [[Book of Wisdom|Book of Wisdom (Wisdom of Solomon)]].

In the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], the [[magi]] (or "wise men") are sent by God to give the newly born [[Jesus]] three types of gifts. Wisdom is also represented by the sense of justice of the lawful and wise king [[Solomon]], who asks God for wisdom in [[1 Kings]] 3. [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] 9:10 says: "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom," and 8:13 "To fear the Lord is to hate evil;". The Catholic and Orthodox [[deuterocanonical books]] of the Bible include the [[Book of Wisdom|Book of Wisdom (Wisdom of Solomon)]].

    

    

[[Buddha]] taught that a wise person is endowed with good bodily conduct, good verbal conduct & good mental conduct (''[[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]]3:2'') and a wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results and doesn’t do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results (''AN4:115''). This is called [[karma]]. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:  

[[Buddha]] taught that a wise person is endowed with good bodily conduct, good verbal conduct & good mental conduct (''[[Anguttara Nikaya|AN]]3:2'') and a wise person does actions that are unpleasant to do but give good results and doesn’t do actions that are pleasant to do but give bad results (''AN4:115''). This is called [[karma]]. The Buddha has much to say on the subject of wisdom including:  

* He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in [[Dhamma]]). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.<ref>''[[Dhammapada]]'' v.256</ref>

* He who arbitrates a case by force does not thereby become just (established in [[Dhamma]]). But the wise man is he who carefully discriminates between right and wrong.<ref>''[[Dhammapada]]''  

* He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v.257</ref>

* He who leads others by nonviolence, righteously and equitably, is indeed a guardian of justice, wise and righteous.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v.257</ref>

* One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v.258</ref>

* One is not wise merely because he talks much. But he who is calm, free from hatred and fear, is verily called a wise man.<ref>''Dhammapada''  

* By quietude alone one does not become a [[Wise old man|sage]] (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.<ref>''Dhammapada'' v.268-9</ref>

* By quietude alone one does not become a [[Wise old man|sage]] (muni) if he is foolish and ignorant. But he who, as if holding a pair of scales, takes the good and shuns the evil, is a wise man; he is indeed a muni by that very reason. He who understands both good and evil as they really are, is called a true sage.<ref>''Dhammapada''  

In [[Taoism]] ''Practical'' Wisdom may be described as knowing what to say and when to say it.

In [[Taoism]] ''Practical'' Wisdom may be described as knowing what to say and when to say it.

==Quotations about wisdom==

==Quotations about wisdom==

"Wise men say nothing in dangerous times." ― [[Aesop]]

*"Wise men say nothing in dangerous times." ― [[Aesop]]

"When I was a boy of fourteen, my father was so ignorant I could hardly stand to have the old man around. But when I got to be twenty-one, I was astonished at how much the old man had learned in seven years." ― [[Mark Twain]]

*"When I was a boy of fourteen, my father was so ignorant I could hardly stand to have the old man around. But when I got to be twenty-one, I was astonished at how much the old man had learned in seven years." ― [[Mark Twain]]

"I hope our wisdom will grow with our power, and teach us, that the less we use our power the greater it will be." ― [[Thomas Jefferson]]

*"I hope our wisdom will grow with our power, and teach us, that the less we use our power the greater it will be." ― [[Thomas Jefferson]]

"[[Patience]] is the companion of wisdom." ― [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]]

*"[[Patience]] is the companion of wisdom." ― [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]]

"Wise men talk because they have something to say; fools, because they have to say something." ― [[Plato]]

*"Wise men talk because they have something to say; fools, because they have to say something." ― [[Plato]]

"Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers." ― [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]]

*"Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers." ― [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]]

"It requires wisdom to understand wisdom: the music is nothing if the audience is deaf." ― [[Walter Lippmann]]

*"It requires wisdom to understand wisdom: the music is nothing if the audience is deaf." ― [[Walter Lippmann]]

==Notes==

*[[Knowledge]] can be had by [[education]], but [[wisdom]], which is indispensable to true [[culture]], can be secured only through [[experience]].[https://urantia.org/cgi-bin/webglimpse/mfs/usr/local/www/data/papers?link=https://mercy.urantia.org/papers/paper81.html&file=/usr/local/www/data/papers/paper81.html&line=148#mfs]

==See also==

==See also==

* [[Intelligence]]

* [[Intelligence]]

* [[Knowledge]]

* [[Knowledge]]

* [[Philosophy]]

* [[Philosophy]]

==External links==

==External links==

 

*[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jsuebersax/Lexicon.htm Wisdom Lexicon Project]

*[https://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/jsuebersax/Lexicon.htm Wisdom Lexicon Project]

*[http://www.poetrybytroy.com/living_wisdom.html Living Wisdom — A Research Paper about Wisdom]

*[https://www.poetrybytroy.com/living_wisdom.html Living Wisdom — A Research Paper about Wisdom]

*[http://www.path-work.info Atlas of Wisdom: Wisdom in Psychology and Spirituality]

*[https://www.path-work.info Atlas of Wisdom: Wisdom in Psychology and Spirituality]

*[http://www.foundationsmag.com/wisdom.html Where is the Wisdom We have Lost in Knowledge?]

*[https://www.foundationsmag.com/wisdom.html Where is the Wisdom We have Lost in Knowledge?]

*[http://www.foundationsmag.com/wisdom2.html Wisdom: The Interval Between the Notes]

*[https://www.foundationsmag.com/wisdom2.html Wisdom: The Interval Between the Notes]

*[http://www.nick-maxwell.demon.co.uk From Knowledge to Wisdom]

*[https://www.nick-maxwell.demon.co.uk From Knowledge to Wisdom]

*[http://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/ft/pb/PB_Wisdom_2004.pdf Book on Wisdom from psychologist Paul Baltes]

*[https://library.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/ft/pb/PB_Wisdom_2004.pdf Book on Wisdom from psychologist Paul Baltes]

*[http://www.excaliburbooks.com Wisdom in Perspective]

*[https://www.excaliburbooks.com Wisdom in Perspective]

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]