Changes

'''Process philosophy''' (or [[ontology]] of [[becoming]]) identifies metaphysical [[reality]] with [[change]] and [[development]]. Since the time of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], philosophers have posited true reality as "timeless", based on permanent substances, while processes are denied or subordinated to timeless substances. If [[Socrates]] changes, becoming sick, Socrates is still the same (the substance of Socrates being the same), and change (his sickness) only glides over his substance: change is [[accidental]], whereas the substance is essential. Therefore, classic ontology denies any full [[reality]] to change, which is conceived as only accidental and not essential. This classical ontology is what made [[knowledge]] and a [[theory]] of knowledge possible, as it was thought that a science of something in [[becoming]] was an impossible feat to achieve.

'''Process philosophy''' (or [[ontology]] of [[becoming]]) identifies metaphysical [[reality]] with [[change]] and [[development]]. Since the time of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], philosophers have posited true reality as "timeless", based on permanent substances, while processes are denied or subordinated to timeless substances. If [[Socrates]] changes, becoming sick, Socrates is still the same (the substance of Socrates being the same), and change (his sickness) only glides over his substance: change is [[accidental]], whereas the substance is essential. Therefore, classic ontology denies any full [[reality]] to change, which is conceived as only accidental and not essential. This classical ontology is what made [[knowledge]] and a [[theory]] of knowledge possible, as it was thought that a science of something in [[becoming]] was an impossible feat to achieve.

In opposition to the classical model of change as accidental (as by Aristotle) or [[illusory]], ''process philosophy'' regards change as the [[cornerstone]] of [[reality]] — the cornerstone of the [[Being]] thought as [[Becoming]]. Modern philosophers who appeal to process rather than substance include [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nietzsche Nietzsche], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidegger Heidegger], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Peirce Charles Peirce], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Watts Alan Watts], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_M._Pirsig Robert M. Pirsig], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne Charles Hartshorne], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arran_Gare Arran Gare] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher Nicholas Rescher]. In [[physics]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illya_Prigogine Ilya Prigogine] distinguishes between the "physics of [[being]]" and the "physics of [[becoming]]". Process philosophy covers not just scientific [[intuitions]] and [[experiences]], but can be used as a conceptual bridge to [[facilitate]] [[discussions]] among [[religion]], [[philosophy]], and [[science]].

In opposition to the classical model of change as accidental (as by Aristotle) or [[illusory]], ''process philosophy'' regards change as the [[cornerstone]] of [[reality]] — the cornerstone of the [[Being]] thought as [[Becoming]]. Modern philosophers who appeal to process rather than substance include [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nietzsche Nietzsche], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heidegger Heidegger], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Peirce Charles Peirce], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Watts Alan Watts], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_M._Pirsig Robert M. Pirsig], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne Charles Hartshorne], [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arran_Gare Arran Gare] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher Nicholas Rescher]. In [[physics]] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illya_Prigogine Ilya Prigogine] distinguishes between the "physics of [[being]]" and the "physics of [[becoming]]". Process philosophy covers not just scientific [[intuitions]] and [[experiences]], but can be used as a conceptual bridge to [[facilitate]] [[discussions]] among [[religion]], [[philosophy]], and [[science]].

*In Ancient Greek thought

*In Ancient Greek thought

An early [[expression]] of this viewpoint is in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus Heraclitus]'s fragments. He posits strife, ἡ ἔρις (strife, [[conflict]]), as the underlying basis of all reality defined by [[change]]. The [[balance]] and opposition in strife were the foundations of change and [[stability]] in the flux of [[existence]].

An early [[expression]] of this viewpoint is in [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclitus Heraclitus]'s fragments. He posits strife, ἡ ἔρις (strife, [[conflict]]), as the underlying basis of all reality defined by [[change]]. The [[balance]] and opposition in strife were the foundations of change and [[stability]] in the flux of [[existence]].

*Twentieth century

*Twentieth century

In early twentieth century [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_Mathematics philosophy of mathematics], it was undertaken to develop [[mathematics]] as an airtight [[axiomatic]] system, in which every truth could be derived logically from a set of axioms. In the foundations of mathematics, this project is variously understood as logicism or as part of the formalist program of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert David Hilbert]. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell Bertrand Russell] attempted to complete, or at least greatly facilitate, this program with their seminal book ''Principia Mathematica'', which purported to build a logically consistent set [[theory]] on which to found mathematics. After this, Whitehead extended his interest to [[natural science]], which needs a deeper philosophical basis. He intuited that natural science was struggling to overcome a traditional [[ontology]] of timeless material substances, because it does not suit natural [[phenomena]]. They are more properly understood as '[[process]]'. This resulted in the most famous work of process philosophy, Alfred North Whitehead's ''Process and Reality'', 1929, a work which continues that begun by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel Hegel] but describing a more complex and fluid dynamic ontology.

In early twentieth century [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_Mathematics philosophy of mathematics], it was undertaken to develop [[mathematics]] as an airtight [[axiomatic]] system, in which every truth could be derived logically from a set of axioms. In the foundations of mathematics, this project is variously understood as logicism or as part of the formalist program of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert David Hilbert]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead Alfred North Whitehead] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertrand_Russell Bertrand Russell] attempted to complete, or at least greatly facilitate, this program with their seminal book ''Principia Mathematica'', which purported to build a logically consistent set [[theory]] on which to found mathematics. After this, Whitehead extended his interest to [[natural science]], which needs a deeper philosophical basis. He intuited that natural science was struggling to overcome a traditional [[ontology]] of timeless material substances, because it does not suit natural [[phenomena]]. They are more properly understood as '[[process]]'. This resulted in the most famous work of process philosophy, Alfred North Whitehead's ''Process and Reality'', 1929, a work which continues that begun by [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hegel Hegel] but describing a more complex and fluid dynamic ontology.

Process thought describes [[truth]] as "[[movement]]" in and through determinates (Hegelian truth), rather than describing these determinates as fixed concepts or "[[things]]" (Aristotelian truth). Since Whitehead, process thought is distinguished from Hegel in that it describes entities which arise or [[coalesce]] in [[becoming]], rather than being simply [[dialectically]] determined from prior posited determinates. These entities are referred to as complexes of occasions of [[experience]]. It is also distinguished in being not necessarily conflictual or oppositional in operation. Process may be [[integrative]], destructive or both together, allowing for aspects of [[interdependence]], [[influence]], and confluence, and addressing coherence in [[universal]] as well as particular developments, which aspects are not condign to Hegel's system. Additionally, instances of determinate occasions of [[experience]], while always [[ephemeral]], are nonetheless seen as important to define the type and continuity of those occasions of experience that [[flow]] from or relate to them.

Process thought describes [[truth]] as "[[movement]]" in and through determinates (Hegelian truth), rather than describing these determinates as fixed concepts or "[[things]]" (Aristotelian truth). Since Whitehead, process thought is distinguished from Hegel in that it describes entities which arise or [[coalesce]] in [[becoming]], rather than being simply [[dialectically]] determined from prior posited determinates. These entities are referred to as complexes of occasions of [[experience]]. It is also distinguished in being not necessarily conflictual or oppositional in operation. Process may be [[integrative]], destructive or both together, allowing for aspects of [[interdependence]], [[influence]], and confluence, and addressing coherence in [[universal]] as well as particular developments, which aspects are not condign to Hegel's system. Additionally, instances of determinate occasions of [[experience]], while always [[ephemeral]], are nonetheless seen as important to define the type and continuity of those occasions of experience that [[flow]] from or relate to them.

Whitehead's influences were not restricted to [[philosophers]] or [[physicists]] or [[mathematicians]]. He was influenced by the French philosopher [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson Henri Bergson] (1859–1941) .

Whitehead's influences were not restricted to [[philosophers]] or [[physicists]] or [[mathematicians]]. He was influenced by the French philosopher [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bergson Henri Bergson] (1859–1941) .

[[Category: Philosophy]]

[[Category: Philosophy]]