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'''Socialism''' refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating public or state ownership and administration of the means of production and distribution of goods, and a society characterized by equality for all individuals, with a fair or [[egalitarian]] method of compensation.[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/socialism "Socialism"] Modern socialism originated in the late 19th-century [[intellectual]] and working class [[social movement|political movement]] that criticized the effects of industrialization and private ownership on society. [[Karl Marx]] posited that socialism would be achieved via class struggle and a proletarian revolution.

'''Socialism''' refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating public or state ownership and administration of the means of production and distribution of goods, and a society characterized by equality for all individuals, with a fair or [[egalitarian]] method of compensation.[https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/socialism "Socialism"] Modern socialism originated in the late 19th-century [[intellectual]] and working class [[social movement|political movement]] that criticized the effects of industrialization and private ownership on society. [[Karl Marx]] posited that socialism would be achieved via class struggle and a proletarian revolution.

The first socialists were termed [[Utopia|utopian]] socialists by later socialist thinkers, and include [[Robert Owen]], who tried to found socialist factories and other structures within a [[Capitalism|capitalist]] society and [[Henri de Saint Simon]], the first [[individual]] to coin to term "socialism" and the originator of technocracy and industrial planning. The first socialists predicted a world improved by harnessing technology and combining it with better social organization, and many contemporary socialists share this belief.[http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h44-ph.html].Early socialist thinkers tended to favor more authentic meritocracy, while many modern socialists have a more egalitarian approach. There is disagreement over the extent that National Socialism is socialist; although Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Program included socialist elements, the Nazis did not nationalize industry, but instead created a highly regulated economy with state-led economic planning.

The first socialists were termed [[Utopia|utopian]] socialists by later socialist thinkers, and include [[Robert Owen]], who tried to found socialist factories and other structures within a [[Capitalism|capitalist]] society and [[Henri de Saint Simon]], the first [[individual]] to coin to term "socialism" and the originator of technocracy and industrial planning. The first socialists predicted a world improved by harnessing technology and combining it with better social organization, and many contemporary socialists share this belief.[https://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h44-ph.html].Early socialist thinkers tended to favor more authentic meritocracy, while many modern socialists have a more egalitarian approach. There is disagreement over the extent that National Socialism is socialist; although Adolf Hitler's National Socialist Program included socialist elements, the Nazis did not nationalize industry, but instead created a highly regulated economy with state-led economic planning.

Socialists mainly share the [[belief]] that [[capitalism]] unfairly concentrates [[power]] and wealth among a small segment of society that controls capital, creates an unequal society, and does not provide equal opportunities for everyone in society. Therefore socialists advocate the [[creation]] of a [[society]] in which wealth and power are distributed more evenly based on the amount of work expended in production, although there is considerable disagreement among socialists over how, and to what extent this could be achieved.  

Socialists mainly share the [[belief]] that [[capitalism]] unfairly concentrates [[power]] and wealth among a small segment of society that controls capital, creates an unequal society, and does not provide equal opportunities for everyone in society. Therefore socialists advocate the [[creation]] of a [[society]] in which wealth and power are distributed more evenly based on the amount of work expended in production, although there is considerable disagreement among socialists over how, and to what extent this could be achieved.  

==First International==

==First International==

In 1864, the International Workingmen's Association (IWA) - the First International - was founded in London. Londoner Victor le Lubez, a French radical republican, invited Karl Marx to participate ''as a representative of German workers''. [http://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/f/i.htm#iwma] In 1865, the IWA had its preliminary conference, and its first congress, at Geneva, in 1866. Karl Marx was a member of the committee; he and Johann Georg Eccarius, a London tailor, were ''the two mainstays of the International, from its inception to its end''; the [[First International]] was the premiere international forum promulgating socialism.

In 1864, the International Workingmen's Association (IWA) - the First International - was founded in London. Londoner Victor le Lubez, a French radical republican, invited Karl Marx to participate ''as a representative of German workers''. [https://www.marxists.org/glossary/orgs/f/i.htm#iwma] In 1865, the IWA had its preliminary conference, and its first congress, at Geneva, in 1866. Karl Marx was a member of the committee; he and Johann Georg Eccarius, a London tailor, were ''the two mainstays of the International, from its inception to its end''; the [[First International]] was the premiere international forum promulgating socialism.

In 1869, under the influence of Marx and Engels, the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany was founded. In 1875, the SDW Party merged with the General German Workers' Association, of [[Ferdinand Lassalle]], metamorphosing to the contemporary German Social Democratic Party (SPD). Since the 1870s, in Germany, Socialism was associated with [[trade unions]], as the SPD constituted trade unions, while, in Austria, France, and other countries, socialist parties and anarchists did like-wise. That [[ideology|ideologic]] development greatly contrasts with the British [[experience]] of Socialism, wherein politically-moderate New Model Unions dominated unionized labor from the mid–nineteenth century, and trade-unionism was stronger than the ''political'' labor movement, until appearance of the Labour Party in the early twentieth century. The first U.S. socialist party was founded in 1876, then metamorphosed to a Marxist party in 1890; the Socialist Labor Party exists today.  An early leader of the Socialist Labor Party was [[Daniel De Leon]], who had considerable influence beyond the United States as well.

In 1869, under the influence of Marx and Engels, the Social Democratic Workers' Party of Germany was founded. In 1875, the SDW Party merged with the General German Workers' Association, of [[Ferdinand Lassalle]], metamorphosing to the contemporary German Social Democratic Party (SPD). Since the 1870s, in Germany, Socialism was associated with [[trade unions]], as the SPD constituted trade unions, while, in Austria, France, and other countries, socialist parties and anarchists did like-wise. That [[ideology|ideologic]] development greatly contrasts with the British [[experience]] of Socialism, wherein politically-moderate New Model Unions dominated unionized labor from the mid–nineteenth century, and trade-unionism was stronger than the ''political'' labor movement, until appearance of the Labour Party in the early twentieth century. The first U.S. socialist party was founded in 1876, then metamorphosed to a Marxist party in 1890; the Socialist Labor Party exists today.  An early leader of the Socialist Labor Party was [[Daniel De Leon]], who had considerable influence beyond the United States as well.

==Second International==

==Second International==

As the ideas of Marx and Engels gained popularity, especially in central Europe, socialists founded the Second International in 1889, the centennial of the French Revolution. Three hundred socialist and labor union organizations from 20 countries sent 384 delegates. [http://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/secondinternational.html]

As the ideas of Marx and Engels gained popularity, especially in central Europe, socialists founded the Second International in 1889, the centennial of the French Revolution. Three hundred socialist and labor union organizations from 20 countries sent 384 delegates. [https://www.marxisthistory.org/subject/usa/eam/secondinternational.html]

In 1890, The Social Democratic Party of Germany used the limited, universal, male suffrage to exercise the electoral strength necessary to compel rescindment of Germany's Anti-Socialist Laws. In 1893, the SPD received 1,787,000 votes, a quarter of the votes cast. Before the SPD published Engels's 1895 introduction to [[Karl Marx]]'s ''Class Struggles in France 1848–1850'', they deleted phrases that they felt were too revolutionary for mainstream readers.

In 1890, The Social Democratic Party of Germany used the limited, universal, male suffrage to exercise the electoral strength necessary to compel rescindment of Germany's Anti-Socialist Laws. In 1893, the SPD received 1,787,000 votes, a quarter of the votes cast. Before the SPD published Engels's 1895 introduction to [[Karl Marx]]'s ''Class Struggles in France 1848–1850'', they deleted phrases that they felt were too revolutionary for mainstream readers.

In Russia in August 1918, assassin Fanya Kaplan shot Lenin in the neck, leaving him with wounds from which he never fully recovered. Earlier, in June, the Soviet government had implemented War Communism to manage the foreign economic boycott of Russia and invasions by Imperial Germany, Imperial Britain, the United States and France (interfering in the Russian Civil War beside royalist White Russians). Under war communism, private business was outlawed, strikers could be shot, the white collar classes were forced to work manually, and peasants could be forced to provide to workers in cities.

In Russia in August 1918, assassin Fanya Kaplan shot Lenin in the neck, leaving him with wounds from which he never fully recovered. Earlier, in June, the Soviet government had implemented War Communism to manage the foreign economic boycott of Russia and invasions by Imperial Germany, Imperial Britain, the United States and France (interfering in the Russian Civil War beside royalist White Russians). Under war communism, private business was outlawed, strikers could be shot, the white collar classes were forced to work manually, and peasants could be forced to provide to workers in cities.

By 1920, as Red Army commander, Trotsky had mostly defeated the royalist White Armies. In 1921, War Communism was ended, and, under the New Economic Policy (NEP), private ownership was allowed for small and medium peasant enterprises; industry remained State-controlled, Lenin acknowledged that the NEP was a necessary capitalist measure for a country mostly unripe for socialism, thus the existence of NEP businessmen and NEP women (NEP Men) flourished and the Kulaks gained capitalist power as rich peasants. [http://www.soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1924nepmen&Year=1924]

By 1920, as Red Army commander, Trotsky had mostly defeated the royalist White Armies. In 1921, War Communism was ended, and, under the New Economic Policy (NEP), private ownership was allowed for small and medium peasant enterprises; industry remained State-controlled, Lenin acknowledged that the NEP was a necessary capitalist measure for a country mostly unripe for socialism, thus the existence of NEP businessmen and NEP women (NEP Men) flourished and the Kulaks gained capitalist power as rich peasants. [https://www.soviethistory.org/index.php?action=L2&SubjectID=1924nepmen&Year=1924]

In 1923, on seeing the Soviet State's greatly coercive [[power]], the dying Lenin said Russia had reverted to "a bourgeois tsarist machine... barely varnished with socialism." After Lenin's death (January 1924), the Communist Party of the Soviet Union - then controlled by Joseph Stalin - rejected the theory that socialism could not be built solely in the Soviet Union, and declared the "Socialism in One Country" policy. Despite the marginal Left Opposition's demanding restoration of Soviet democracy, Stalin developed a bureaucratic, [[authoritarian]] government, that was condemned by democratic socialists, anarchists and [[Trotskyists]] for undermining the initial socialist [[ideal]]s of the Bolshevik Russian Revolution.

In 1923, on seeing the Soviet State's greatly coercive [[power]], the dying Lenin said Russia had reverted to "a bourgeois tsarist machine... barely varnished with socialism." After Lenin's death (January 1924), the Communist Party of the Soviet Union - then controlled by Joseph Stalin - rejected the theory that socialism could not be built solely in the Soviet Union, and declared the "Socialism in One Country" policy. Despite the marginal Left Opposition's demanding restoration of Soviet democracy, Stalin developed a bureaucratic, [[authoritarian]] government, that was condemned by democratic socialists, anarchists and [[Trotskyists]] for undermining the initial socialist [[ideal]]s of the Bolshevik Russian Revolution.

This view was not universally shared, particularly in Europe, and especially in Britain, where the Communist Party was very weak. In 1951, British Health Minister [[Aneurin Bevan]] expressed the view that, "It is probably true that Western Europe would have gone socialist after the war if Soviet [[behavior]] had not given it too grim a visage. Soviet Communism and Socialism are not yet sufficiently distinguished in many minds."

This view was not universally shared, particularly in Europe, and especially in Britain, where the Communist Party was very weak. In 1951, British Health Minister [[Aneurin Bevan]] expressed the view that, "It is probably true that Western Europe would have gone socialist after the war if Soviet [[behavior]] had not given it too grim a visage. Soviet Communism and Socialism are not yet sufficiently distinguished in many minds."

In 1951, the Socialist International was refounded by the European social democratic parties. It declared: "Communism has split the International Labour Movement and has set back the realisation of Socialism in many countries for decades... Communism falsely claims a share in the Socialist tradition. In [[fact]] it has distorted that [[tradition]] beyond recognition. It has built up a rigid [[theology]] which is incompatible with the critical spirit of Marxism."[http://www.socialistinternational.org/5Congress/1-FRANKFURT/Frankfurtdecl-e.html]

In 1951, the Socialist International was refounded by the European social democratic parties. It declared: "Communism has split the International Labour Movement and has set back the realisation of Socialism in many countries for decades... Communism falsely claims a share in the Socialist tradition. In [[fact]] it has distorted that [[tradition]] beyond recognition. It has built up a rigid [[theology]] which is incompatible with the critical spirit of Marxism."[https://www.socialistinternational.org/5Congress/1-FRANKFURT/Frankfurtdecl-e.html]

The last quarter of the twentieth century marked a period of major crisis for Communists in the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, where the growing shortages of housing and consumer goods, combined with the lack of individual rights to assembly and speech, began to disillusion more and more Communist party members. With the rapid collapse of Communist party rule in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe between 1989 and 1991, the Soviet version of socialism has effectively disappeared as a worldwide political force.

The last quarter of the twentieth century marked a period of major crisis for Communists in the Soviet Union and the Eastern bloc, where the growing shortages of housing and consumer goods, combined with the lack of individual rights to assembly and speech, began to disillusion more and more Communist party members. With the rapid collapse of Communist party rule in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe between 1989 and 1991, the Soviet version of socialism has effectively disappeared as a worldwide political force.

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The post-war social democratic governments introduced social reform and wealth redistribution via state welfare and taxation. The new U.K. Labour Government effected the nationalizations of major public utilities such as mines, gas, coal, electricity, rail, iron, steel, and the Bank of England. British Petroleum, privatized in 1987, was officially nationalised in 1951 per government archives [http://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=Nationalisation_of_Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company%2C_1951] with further government intervention during the 1974–79 Labour Government, cf 'The New Commanding Height: Labor Party Policy on North Sea Oil and Gas, 1964–74' in ''Contemporary British History'', Volume 16, Issue 1 Spring 2002 , pages 89–118. Elements of these entities already were in public hands. Later Labour re-nationalised steel (1967, British Steel) after Conservatives de-nationalized it, and nationalized car production (1976, British Leyland), [http://www.uksteel.org.uk/history.htm]. In 1977, major aircraft companies and shipbuilding were nationalised. To wit, France claimed to be the world's most State-controlled, capitalist country. The nationalized public utilities include CDF (Charbonnages de France), EDF (Électricité de France), GDF (Gaz de France), airlines (Air France), banks (Banque de France), and Renault (Régie Nationale des Usines Renault) [http://www.sund.ac.uk/~os0tmc/contem/trente1.htm].

The post-war social democratic governments introduced social reform and wealth redistribution via state welfare and taxation. The new U.K. Labour Government effected the nationalizations of major public utilities such as mines, gas, coal, electricity, rail, iron, steel, and the Bank of England. British Petroleum, privatized in 1987, was officially nationalised in 1951 per government archives [https://yourarchives.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php?title=Nationalisation_of_Anglo-Iranian_Oil_Company%2C_1951] with further government intervention during the 1974–79 Labour Government, cf 'The New Commanding Height: Labor Party Policy on North Sea Oil and Gas, 1964–74' in ''Contemporary British History'', Volume 16, Issue 1 Spring 2002 , pages 89–118. Elements of these entities already were in public hands. Later Labour re-nationalised steel (1967, British Steel) after Conservatives de-nationalized it, and nationalized car production (1976, British Leyland), [https://www.uksteel.org.uk/history.htm]. In 1977, major aircraft companies and shipbuilding were nationalised. To wit, France claimed to be the world's most State-controlled, capitalist country. The nationalized public utilities include CDF (Charbonnages de France), EDF (Électricité de France), GDF (Gaz de France), airlines (Air France), banks (Banque de France), and Renault (Régie Nationale des Usines Renault) [https://www.sund.ac.uk/~os0tmc/contem/trente1.htm].

In the UK, the National Health Service provided free health care to all of the British population. Working-class housing was provided in council housing estates, and university education available via a school grant system. Ellen Wilkinson, Minister for Education, introduced free milk in schools, saying, in a 1946 Labor Party conference: ''Free milk will be provided in Hoxton and Shoreditch, in Eton and Harrow. What more social equality can you have than that?'' To wit, Clement Attlee's biographer says this ''contributed enormously to the defeat of childhood illnesses resulting from bad diet. Generations of poor children grew up stronger and healthier, because of this one, small, and inexpensive act of generosity, by the Attlee government''.

In the UK, the National Health Service provided free health care to all of the British population. Working-class housing was provided in council housing estates, and university education available via a school grant system. Ellen Wilkinson, Minister for Education, introduced free milk in schools, saying, in a 1946 Labor Party conference: ''Free milk will be provided in Hoxton and Shoreditch, in Eton and Harrow. What more social equality can you have than that?'' To wit, Clement Attlee's biographer says this ''contributed enormously to the defeat of childhood illnesses resulting from bad diet. Generations of poor children grew up stronger and healthier, because of this one, small, and inexpensive act of generosity, by the Attlee government''.

In 1989, at Stockholm, the 18th Congress of the Socialist International adopted a ''Declaration of Principles'', saying  that

In 1989, at Stockholm, the 18th Congress of the Socialist International adopted a ''Declaration of Principles'', saying  that

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Democratic socialism is an international movement for freedom, social justice, and solidarity. Its goal is to achieve a peaceful world where these basic [[value]]s can be enhanced and where each [[individual]] can live a [[meaning]]ful life with the full development of his or her [[personality]] and talents, and with the guarantee of human and civil rights in a democratic framework of society''.[http://www.socialistinternational.org/4Principles/dofpeng2.html]  

Democratic socialism is an international movement for freedom, social justice, and solidarity. Its goal is to achieve a peaceful world where these basic [[value]]s can be enhanced and where each [[individual]] can live a [[meaning]]ful life with the full development of his or her [[personality]] and talents, and with the guarantee of human and civil rights in a democratic framework of society''.[https://www.socialistinternational.org/4Principles/dofpeng2.html]  

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The objectives of the Party of European Socialists, the European Parliament's socialist bloc, are "to pursue international aims in respect of the principles on which the European Union is based, namely principles of freedom, equality, solidarity, democracy, respect of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and respect for the Rule of Law." Today, the rallying cry of the French Revolution - "Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity" now constitute essential socialist values.

The objectives of the Party of European Socialists, the European Parliament's socialist bloc, are "to pursue international aims in respect of the principles on which the European Union is based, namely principles of freedom, equality, solidarity, democracy, respect of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and respect for the Rule of Law." Today, the rallying cry of the French Revolution - "Equality, Liberty, and Fraternity" now constitute essential socialist values.

In 1995, the British Labour Party revised its political aims: "The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that, by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create, for each of us, the means to realise our true potential, and, for all of us, a [[community]] in which [[power]], wealth, and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few."[http://www.labour.org.uk/labour_policies]  Cabinet minister Herbert Morrison said, "Socialism is what the Labour Government does."

In 1995, the British Labour Party revised its political aims: "The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that, by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create, for each of us, the means to realise our true potential, and, for all of us, a [[community]] in which [[power]], wealth, and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few."[https://www.labour.org.uk/labour_policies]  Cabinet minister Herbert Morrison said, "Socialism is what the Labour Government does."

===21st century===

===21st century===

In some Latin American countries, socialism has re-emerged in recent years, with an anti-imperialist stance, the rejection of the policies of neo-liberalism and the nationalisation or part nationalisation of oil production, land and other assets. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and Bolivian President Evo Morales, for instance, refer to their political programs as socialist. Chávez has coined the term "21st century socialism" (sometimes translated more literally as "Socialism of the 21st century"). After winning re-election in December 2006, President Chávez said, "Now more than ever, I am obliged to move Venezuela's path towards socialism." [http://www.voanews.com/english/2007-07-09-voa37.cfm]  

In some Latin American countries, socialism has re-emerged in recent years, with an anti-imperialist stance, the rejection of the policies of neo-liberalism and the nationalisation or part nationalisation of oil production, land and other assets. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and Bolivian President Evo Morales, for instance, refer to their political programs as socialist. Chávez has coined the term "21st century socialism" (sometimes translated more literally as "Socialism of the 21st century"). After winning re-election in December 2006, President Chávez said, "Now more than ever, I am obliged to move Venezuela's path towards socialism." [https://www.voanews.com/english/2007-07-09-voa37.cfm]  

In the developing world, some elected socialist parties and communist parties remain prominent, particularly in India and Nepal. The Communist Party of Nepal in particular calls for multi-party democracy, social equality, and economic prosperity. [http://www.cpnm.org/ ''Communist Party of Nepal']

In the developing world, some elected socialist parties and communist parties remain prominent, particularly in India and Nepal. The Communist Party of Nepal in particular calls for multi-party democracy, social equality, and economic prosperity. [https://www.cpnm.org/ ''Communist Party of Nepal']

In China, the Chinese Communist Party has led a transition from the command economy of the Mao period to an economic program they term the socialist market economy or "socialism with Chinese characteristics." Under Deng Xiaoping, the leadership of China embarked upon a program of market-based reform that was more sweeping than had been Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika program of the late 1980s. Deng's program, however, maintained state ownership rights over land, state or cooperative ownership of much of the heavy industrial and manufacturing sectors and state influence in the banking and financial sectors. In South Africa the ANC abandoned its partial socialist allegiances on taking power and followed a standard neo-liberal route. But from 2005 through to 2007 the country was wracked by many thousands of protests from poor communities. One of these gave rise to a mass movement of shack dwellers, [[Abahlali base Mjondolo]] that, despite major police suppression, continues to advocate for popular people's planning and against the marketization of land and housing. Communist candidate Dimitris Christofias won a crucial presidential runoff in Cyprus, defeating his conservative rival with a majority of 53%.[http://www.elpasotimes.com/nationworld/ci_835244 ''Christofias wins Cyprus presidency' ''] The Left Party in Germany has also grown in popularity.[http://www.wsws.org/articles/2008/feb2008/hess-f15.shtml ''Germany’s Left Party woos the SPD' '']

In China, the Chinese Communist Party has led a transition from the command economy of the Mao period to an economic program they term the socialist market economy or "socialism with Chinese characteristics." Under Deng Xiaoping, the leadership of China embarked upon a program of market-based reform that was more sweeping than had been Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's perestroika program of the late 1980s. Deng's program, however, maintained state ownership rights over land, state or cooperative ownership of much of the heavy industrial and manufacturing sectors and state influence in the banking and financial sectors. In South Africa the ANC abandoned its partial socialist allegiances on taking power and followed a standard neo-liberal route. But from 2005 through to 2007 the country was wracked by many thousands of protests from poor communities. One of these gave rise to a mass movement of shack dwellers, [[Abahlali base Mjondolo]] that, despite major police suppression, continues to advocate for popular people's planning and against the marketization of land and housing. Communist candidate Dimitris Christofias won a crucial presidential runoff in Cyprus, defeating his conservative rival with a majority of 53%.[https://www.elpasotimes.com/nationworld/ci_835244 ''Christofias wins Cyprus presidency' ''] The Left Party in Germany has also grown in popularity.[https://www.wsws.org/articles/2008/feb2008/hess-f15.shtml ''Germany’s Left Party woos the SPD' '']

[[African socialism]] continues to be a major [[ideology]] around the continent. The People's Republic of China, Cuba, North Korea, Laos and Vietnam are states remaining from the first wave of socialism in the 20th century.

[[African socialism]] continues to be a major [[ideology]] around the continent. The People's Republic of China, Cuba, North Korea, Laos and Vietnam are states remaining from the first wave of socialism in the 20th century.

In western Europe, particularly in the period after [[World War II]], many socialist parties in government implemented what became known as mixed economies. In the biography of the 1945 Labour Party Prime Minister Clem Attlee, Francis Beckett states: "the government... wanted what would become known as a mixed economy". Beckett also states that "Everyone called the 1945 government 'socialist'." These governments nationalised major and economically vital industries while permitting a free market to continue in the rest. These were most often monopolistic or infrastructural industries like mail, railways, power and other utilities. In some instances a number of small, competing and often relatively poorly financed companies in the same sector were nationalised to form one government monopoly for the purpose of competent management, of economic rescue (in the UK, British Leyland, Rolls Royce), or of competing on the world market.  

In western Europe, particularly in the period after [[World War II]], many socialist parties in government implemented what became known as mixed economies. In the biography of the 1945 Labour Party Prime Minister Clem Attlee, Francis Beckett states: "the government... wanted what would become known as a mixed economy". Beckett also states that "Everyone called the 1945 government 'socialist'." These governments nationalised major and economically vital industries while permitting a free market to continue in the rest. These were most often monopolistic or infrastructural industries like mail, railways, power and other utilities. In some instances a number of small, competing and often relatively poorly financed companies in the same sector were nationalised to form one government monopoly for the purpose of competent management, of economic rescue (in the UK, British Leyland, Rolls Royce), or of competing on the world market.  

Also in the UK, British Aerospace was a combination of major aircraft companies British Aircraft Corporation, Hawker Siddeley and others. British Shipbuilders was a combination of the major shipbuilding companies including Cammell Laird, Govan Shipbuilders, Swan Hunter, and Yarrow Shipbuilders. Typically, this was achieved through compulsory purchase of the industry (i.e. with compensation). In the UK, the nationalization of the coal mines in 1947 created a coal board charged with running the coal industry commercially so as to be able to meet the interest payable on the bonds which the former mine owners' shares had been converted into.[http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/pdf/ms.pdf][http://www.marxists.org/archive/hardcastle/1947/02/railways.htm]  

Also in the UK, British Aerospace was a combination of major aircraft companies British Aircraft Corporation, Hawker Siddeley and others. British Shipbuilders was a combination of the major shipbuilding companies including Cammell Laird, Govan Shipbuilders, Swan Hunter, and Yarrow Shipbuilders. Typically, this was achieved through compulsory purchase of the industry (i.e. with compensation). In the UK, the nationalization of the coal mines in 1947 created a coal board charged with running the coal industry commercially so as to be able to meet the interest payable on the bonds which the former mine owners' shares had been converted into.[https://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/pdf/ms.pdf][https://www.marxists.org/archive/hardcastle/1947/02/railways.htm]  

Some socialists propose various decentralized, worker-managed economic systems. One such system is the ''cooperative economy'', a largely free market economy in which workers manage the firms and democratically determine remuneration levels and labor divisions. Productive resources would be legally owned by the [[cooperative]] and rented to the workers, who would enjoy [[usufruct]] rights. Another, more recent, variant is participatory economics, wherein the economy is planned by decentralized councils of workers and consumers. Workers would be remunerated solely according to effort and sacrifice, so that those engaged in dangerous, uncomfortable, and strenuous work would receive the highest incomes and could thereby work less. Some Marxists and anarcho-communists also propose a worker-managed economy based on workers councils, however in anarcho-communism, workers are remunerated according to their needs (which are largely self-determined in an anarcho-communist system). Recently socialists have also been working with the [[technocracy movement]] to promote such concepts as [[energy accounting]].

Some socialists propose various decentralized, worker-managed economic systems. One such system is the ''cooperative economy'', a largely free market economy in which workers manage the firms and democratically determine remuneration levels and labor divisions. Productive resources would be legally owned by the [[cooperative]] and rented to the workers, who would enjoy [[usufruct]] rights. Another, more recent, variant is participatory economics, wherein the economy is planned by decentralized councils of workers and consumers. Workers would be remunerated solely according to effort and sacrifice, so that those engaged in dangerous, uncomfortable, and strenuous work would receive the highest incomes and could thereby work less. Some Marxists and anarcho-communists also propose a worker-managed economy based on workers councils, however in anarcho-communism, workers are remunerated according to their needs (which are largely self-determined in an anarcho-communist system). Recently socialists have also been working with the [[technocracy movement]] to promote such concepts as [[energy accounting]].

==Social and political theory==

==Social and political theory==

"Socialism cannot exist without a change in [[consciousness]] resulting in a new fraternal attitude toward [[humanity]], both at an [[individual]] level, within the societies where socialism is being built or has been built, and on a world scale, with regard to all peoples suffering from imperialist oppression."| [[Che Guevara]], [[Marxist]] revolutionary, 1965 [http://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1965/02/24.htm "At the Afro-Asian Conference in Algeria"] speech by [[Che Guevara]] to the Second Economic Seminar of Afro-Asian Solidarity in Algiers, Algeria on February 24 1965

"Socialism cannot exist without a change in [[consciousness]] resulting in a new fraternal attitude toward [[humanity]], both at an [[individual]] level, within the societies where socialism is being built or has been built, and on a world scale, with regard to all peoples suffering from imperialist oppression."| [[Che Guevara]], [[Marxist]] revolutionary, 1965 [https://www.marxists.org/archive/guevara/1965/02/24.htm "At the Afro-Asian Conference in Algeria"] speech by [[Che Guevara]] to the Second Economic Seminar of Afro-Asian Solidarity in Algiers, Algeria on February 24 1965

Marxist and non-Marxist social theorists agree that socialism developed in reaction to modern industrial capitalism, but disagree on the nature of their relationship. [[Émile Durkheim]] posits that socialism is rooted in the desire to bring the state closer to the realm of individual activity, in countering the [[anomie]] of a capitalist society. In socialism, [[Max Weber]] saw acceleration of the rationalization started in [[capitalism]]. As critic of socialism, he warned that placing the economy entirely in the state's bureaucratic control would result in an "iron cage of future bondage".

Marxist and non-Marxist social theorists agree that socialism developed in reaction to modern industrial capitalism, but disagree on the nature of their relationship. [[Émile Durkheim]] posits that socialism is rooted in the desire to bring the state closer to the realm of individual activity, in countering the [[anomie]] of a capitalist society. In socialism, [[Max Weber]] saw acceleration of the rationalization started in [[capitalism]]. As critic of socialism, he warned that placing the economy entirely in the state's bureaucratic control would result in an "iron cage of future bondage".

* [[Friedrich Engels]], ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'', Zurich, 1884.  

* [[Friedrich Engels]], ''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'', Zurich, 1884.  

* Albert Fried and Ronald Sanders, eds., ''Socialist Thought: A Documentary History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor, 1964.  

* Albert Fried and Ronald Sanders, eds., ''Socialist Thought: A Documentary History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday Anchor, 1964.  

* [http://www.selvesandothers.org/view804.html Phil Gasper], ''The Communist Manifesto: A Road Map to History's Most Important Political Document'', [http://www.haymarketbooks.org/Merchant2/merchant.mv?Screen=PROD&Store_Code=Haymarket&Product_Code=MSACM Haymarket Books], paperback, 224 pages, 2005. ISBN 1-931859-25-6.

* [https://www.selvesandothers.org/view804.html Phil Gasper], ''The Communist Manifesto: A Road Map to History's Most Important Political Document'', [https://www.haymarketbooks.org/Merchant2/merchant.mv?Screen=PROD&Store_Code=Haymarket&Product_Code=MSACM Haymarket Books], paperback, 224 pages, 2005. ISBN 1-931859-25-6.

* [[Élie Halévy]], ''Histoire du Socialisme Européen''. Paris, Gallimard, 1948.

* [[Élie Halévy]], ''Histoire du Socialisme Européen''. Paris, Gallimard, 1948.

* [[Michael Harrington]], ''Socialism'', New York: Bantam, 1972.  

* [[Michael Harrington]], ''Socialism'', New York: Bantam, 1972.  

* [[Jesús Huerta de Soto]], [http://www.jesushuertadesoto.com/pdf_socialismo/indice.pdf ''Socialismo, cálculo económico y función empresarial''] (''Socialism, Economic Calculation, and Entrepreneurship''), Unión Editorial, 1992. ISBN 8472094200.

* [[Jesús Huerta de Soto]], [https://www.jesushuertadesoto.com/pdf_socialismo/indice.pdf ''Socialismo, cálculo económico y función empresarial''] (''Socialism, Economic Calculation, and Entrepreneurship''), Unión Editorial, 1992. ISBN 8472094200.

* Makoto Itoh, ''Political Economy of Socialism''. London: Macmillan, 1995. ISBN 0333553373.

* Makoto Itoh, ''Political Economy of Socialism''. London: Macmillan, 1995. ISBN 0333553373.

* [[Oskar Lange]], ''On the Economic Theory of Socialism'', Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1938.

* [[Oskar Lange]], ''On the Economic Theory of Socialism'', Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1938.

* Michael Lebowitz, ''[http://www.monthlyreview.org/builditnow.htm Build It Now: Socialism for the 21st Century]'', [http://www.monthlyreview.org Monthly Review Press], 2006. ISBN 1-58367-145-5.

* Michael Lebowitz, ''[https://www.monthlyreview.org/builditnow.htm Build It Now: Socialism for the 21st Century]'', [https://www.monthlyreview.org Monthly Review Press], 2006. ISBN 1-58367-145-5.

* Marx, Engels, ''The Communist Manifesto'', Penguin Classics (2002) 978-0140447576

* Marx, Engels, ''The Communist Manifesto'', Penguin Classics (2002) 978-0140447576

* Marx, Engels, ''Selected works in one volume'', Lawrence and Wishart (1968) 978-0853151814

* Marx, Engels, ''Selected works in one volume'', Lawrence and Wishart (1968) 978-0853151814

* [[Ludwig von Mises]], ''[[Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis]]'' [http://www.mises.org/books/socialism/contents.aspx], Liberty Fund, 1922. ISBN 0-913966-63-0.

* [[Ludwig von Mises]], ''[[Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis]]'' [https://www.mises.org/books/socialism/contents.aspx], Liberty Fund, 1922. ISBN 0-913966-63-0.

* [[Joshua Muravchik]], [http://www.pbs.org/heavenonearth/resources.html ''Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism''], San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2002. ISBN 1-893554-45-7.

* [[Joshua Muravchik]], [https://www.pbs.org/heavenonearth/resources.html ''Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism''], San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2002. ISBN 1-893554-45-7.

* Michael Newman, ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-280431-6.

* Michael Newman, ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-19-280431-6.

*[[Bertell Ollman]], ed., ''Market Socialism: The Debate among Socialists'', Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415919673

*[[Bertell Ollman]], ed., ''Market Socialism: The Debate among Socialists'', Routledge, 1998. ISBN 0415919673

*[[Leo Panitch]], ''Renewing Socialism: Democracy, Strategy, and Imagination''. ISBN 0-8133-9821-5.

*[[Leo Panitch]], ''Renewing Socialism: Democracy, Strategy, and Imagination''. ISBN 0-8133-9821-5.

*Emile Perreau-Saussine, ''What remains of socialism ?'' [http://www.polis.cam.ac.uk/contacts/staff/eperreausaussine/what_is_left_of_socialism.pdf], in Patrick Riordan (dir.), Values in Public life: aspects of common goods (Berlin, LIT Verlag, 2007), pp. 11–34

*Emile Perreau-Saussine, ''What remains of socialism ?'' [https://www.polis.cam.ac.uk/contacts/staff/eperreausaussine/what_is_left_of_socialism.pdf], in Patrick Riordan (dir.), Values in Public life: aspects of common goods (Berlin, LIT Verlag, 2007), pp. 11–34

*[[Richard Pipes]], ''Property and Freedom'', Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-375-70447-7.

*[[Richard Pipes]], ''Property and Freedom'', Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-375-70447-7.

* John Barkley Rosser and Marina V. Rosser, ''Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004. ISBN 9780262182348.

* John Barkley Rosser and Marina V. Rosser, ''Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004. ISBN 9780262182348.

* [[Maximilien Rubel]] and John Crump, ''Non-Market Socialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries''. ISBN 0-312-00524-5.

* [[Maximilien Rubel]] and John Crump, ''Non-Market Socialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries''. ISBN 0-312-00524-5.

* [[David Selbourne]], ''Against Socialist Illusion'', London, 1985. ISBN 0-333-37095-3.

* [[David Selbourne]], ''Against Socialist Illusion'', London, 1985. ISBN 0-333-37095-3.

* [[James Weinstein]], ''Long Detour: The History and Future of the American Left'', [http://www.westviewpress.com/about.html Westview Press], 2003, hardcover, 272 pages. ISBN 0-8133-4104-3.

* [[James Weinstein]], ''Long Detour: The History and Future of the American Left'', [https://www.westviewpress.com/about.html Westview Press], 2003, hardcover, 272 pages. ISBN 0-8133-4104-3.

* Peter Wilberg, [http://www.newgnosis.co.uk/deep.html ''Deep Socialism: A New Manifesto of Marxist Ethics and Economics''], 2003. ISBN 1-904519-02-4.

* Peter Wilberg, [https://www.newgnosis.co.uk/deep.html ''Deep Socialism: A New Manifesto of Marxist Ethics and Economics''], 2003. ISBN 1-904519-02-4.

* [[Edmund Wilson]], ''To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940.

* [[Edmund Wilson]], ''To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History'', Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940.

==External links==

==External links==

* [http://www.marxist.com In Defense of Marxism]

* [https://www.marxist.com In Defense of Marxism]

* [http://www.marxists.org The Marxists Internet Archive] (online library of Marxist writers)

* [https://www.marxists.org The Marxists Internet Archive] (online library of Marxist writers)

*[http://www.marxist.com/rircontents-5.htm Reason in Revolt: Marxism and Modern Science By Alan Woods and Ted Grant]

*[https://www.marxist.com/rircontents-5.htm Reason in Revolt: Marxism and Modern Science By Alan Woods and Ted Grant]

* [http://www.marxist.net/sciphil/reasoninrevolt/index.html Science, Marxism & the Big Bang: A Critical Review of Reason in Revolt by Peter Mason]

* [https://www.marxist.net/sciphil/reasoninrevolt/index.html Science, Marxism & the Big Bang: A Critical Review of Reason in Revolt by Peter Mason]

* [http://www.marxist.net Marxist.net] - a resource on socialist writers

* [https://www.marxist.net Marxist.net] - a resource on socialist writers

* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/socialism.htm History of socialism at Spartacus Educational]

* [https://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/socialism.htm History of socialism at Spartacus Educational]

* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook33.html Modern History Sourcebook on socialism]

* [https://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook33.html Modern History Sourcebook on socialism]

* [http://www.whatnextjournal.co.uk/Pages/History/Articles.html Socialist history at ''What Next?'']

* [https://www.whatnextjournal.co.uk/Pages/History/Articles.html Socialist history at ''What Next?'']

* [http://www.pbs.org/heavenonearth/ PBS' "Heaven on Earth: the Rise and Fall of Socialism"]

* [https://www.pbs.org/heavenonearth/ PBS' "Heaven on Earth: the Rise and Fall of Socialism"]

* [http://www.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/new_socialism.pdf ''Towards a New Socialism''] by W. Paul Cockshott and Allin Cottrell

* [https://www.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/new_socialism.pdf ''Towards a New Socialism''] by W. Paul Cockshott and Allin Cottrell

* [http://21stcenturysocialism.com/ 21st Century Socialism] web magazine

* [https://21stcenturysocialism.com/ 21st Century Socialism] web magazine

* [http://www.newsweek.com/id/183663/output/print "We Are All Socialists Now"] by Jon Meacham and Evan Thomas, ''Newsweek'', February 16 2009

* [https://www.newsweek.com/id/183663/output/print "We Are All Socialists Now"] by Jon Meacham and Evan Thomas, ''Newsweek'', February 16 2009

* [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20090323/ehrenreich_fletcher?rel=hp_picks Reimagining Socialism: Rising to the Occasion] by Barbara Ehrenreich & Bill Fletcher Jr., ''The Nation'', March 4 2009

* [https://www.thenation.com/doc/20090323/ehrenreich_fletcher?rel=hp_picks Reimagining Socialism: Rising to the Occasion] by Barbara Ehrenreich & Bill Fletcher Jr., ''The Nation'', March 4 2009

* [http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm "Why Socialism?"] by [[Albert Einstein]]

* [https://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm "Why Socialism?"] by [[Albert Einstein]]

* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific"] by [[Friedrich Engels]]

* [https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm "Socialism: Utopian and Scientific"] by [[Friedrich Engels]]

* [http://libcom.org/library/soul-of-man-under-socialism-oscar-wilde "The Soul of Man under Socialism"] by [[Oscar Wilde]]

* [https://libcom.org/library/soul-of-man-under-socialism-oscar-wilde "The Soul of Man under Socialism"] by [[Oscar Wilde]]

* [http://www.sps.cam.ac.uk/pol/staff/eperreausaussine/what_is_left_of_socialism.pdf "What remains of Socialism"] by Emile Perreau-Saussine

* [https://www.sps.cam.ac.uk/pol/staff/eperreausaussine/what_is_left_of_socialism.pdf "What remains of Socialism"] by Emile Perreau-Saussine

* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/shaw/works/guide2.htm "Socialism and Liberty"] by [[George Bernard Shaw]]

* [https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/shaw/works/guide2.htm "Socialism and Liberty"] by [[George Bernard Shaw]]

* [http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/contemp/pamsetc/twosouls/twosouls.htm "The Two Souls of Socialsm"] by [[Hal Draper]]

* [https://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/contemp/pamsetc/twosouls/twosouls.htm "The Two Souls of Socialsm"] by [[Hal Draper]]

* [http://www.monthlyreview.org/0705magdoffs2.htm "Approaching Socialism"] by [[Harry Magdoff]] and Fred Magdoff

* [https://www.monthlyreview.org/0705magdoffs2.htm "Approaching Socialism"] by [[Harry Magdoff]] and Fred Magdoff

* [http://www.socialism.com/ Socialism website]

* [https://www.socialism.com/ Socialism website]

* [http://counterhegemonic.blogspot.com/ The Counterhegemonic Blogspot Socialism in Action]

* [https://counterhegemonic.blogspot.com/ The Counterhegemonic Blogspot Socialism in Action]

* [http://www.socialism.org.uk/ What is Socialism?]

* [https://www.socialism.org.uk/ What is Socialism?]

[[Category: Political Science]]

[[Category: Political Science]]