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'''Conservatism''' is a term used to describe [[political philosophy|political philosophies]] that favor tradition and gradual change, where tradition refers to religious, cultural, or nationally defined beliefs and customs.  The term is derived from the Latin, ''com servare'', ''to preserve''; "to protect from loss or harm".  Since different cultures have different established values, conservatives in different cultures have differing goals. Some conservatives seek to preserve the [[status quo]] or to reform society slowly, while others seek to return to the values of an earlier time, the [[status quo ante]].  

'''Conservatism''' is a term used to describe [[political philosophy|political philosophies]] that favor tradition and gradual change, where tradition refers to religious, cultural, or nationally defined beliefs and customs.  The term is derived from the Latin, ''com servare'', ''to preserve''; "to protect from loss or harm".  Since different cultures have different established values, conservatives in different cultures have differing goals. Some conservatives seek to preserve the [[status quo]] or to reform society slowly, while others seek to return to the values of an earlier time, the [[status quo ante]].  

Conservatism as a political philosophy is difficult to define, encompassing numerous different movements in various countries and time periods; there may sometimes be contradictions between alternative conceptions of conservatism as the ideology of preserving the past, and the contemporary worldwide conception of conservatism as a [[right-wing]] political stance.  For instance, as one commentator questions, "who are the 'conservatives' in today's [[Russia]]?  Are they the unreconstructed [[Stalinists]], or the reformers who have adopted the [[right-wing]] views of modern conservatives such as [[Margaret Thatcher]]?"<ref>[http://politicalcompass.org/ The Political Compass Home Page]</ref>  

Conservatism as a political philosophy is difficult to define, encompassing numerous different movements in various countries and time periods; there may sometimes be contradictions between alternative conceptions of conservatism as the ideology of preserving the past, and the contemporary worldwide conception of conservatism as a [[right-wing]] political stance.  For instance, as one commentator questions, "who are the 'conservatives' in today's [[Russia]]?  Are they the unreconstructed [[Stalinists]], or the reformers who have adopted the [[right-wing]] views of modern conservatives such as [[Margaret Thatcher]]?"<ref>[http://politicalcompass.org/ The Political Compass Home Page]</ref>  

[[Samuel Francis]] defined authentic conservatism as “the survival and enhancement of a particular people and its institutionalized cultural expressions.”<ref>[http://www.samfrancis.net/pdf/all1992.pdf www.samfrancis.net]</ref> [[Roger Scruton]] calls it “maintenance of the social ecology” and “the politics of delay, the purpose of which is to maintain in being, for as long as possible, the life and health of a social organism.”<ref>[http://profam.org/Special/thc_scruton_0405s.htm profam.org]</ref> Conservatives believe that radical change and unproven beliefs should not be quickly implemented before being tested.  

[[Samuel Francis]] defined authentic conservatism as “the survival and enhancement of a particular people and its institutionalized cultural expressions.”<ref>[http://www.samfrancis.net/pdf/all1992.pdf www.samfrancis.net]</ref> [[Roger Scruton]] calls it “maintenance of the social ecology” and “the politics of delay, the purpose of which is to maintain in being, for as long as possible, the life and health of a social organism.”[http://profam.org/Special/thc_scruton_0405s.htm profam.org] Conservatives believe that radical change and unproven beliefs should not be quickly implemented before being tested.  

==Development of thought==

==Development of thought==

Conservatives strongly support the right of property. Carl B. Cone, in ''Burke and the Nature of Politics'',<ref> Carl B. Cone, ''Burke and the Nature of Politics'', University of Kentucky Press, 1957 {{OCLC|399586}} </ref> pointed out that this view, expressed as philosophy, also served the interests of the people involved.  "As Burke had declared…this law ... encroached upon property rights... . To the eighteenth century Whig, nothing was more sacred than the rights of property, ... the protest could not be entirely frank, and it masked personal interests behind lofty principles. These principles were not hypocritically pronounced, but they did not reveal the financial interests of Rockingham, Burke, and other persons who opposed the East India legislation as members of parliament, as holders of East India stock..."     

Conservatives strongly support the right of property. Carl B. Cone, in ''Burke and the Nature of Politics'',<ref> Carl B. Cone, ''Burke and the Nature of Politics'', University of Kentucky Press, 1957 {{OCLC|399586}} </ref> pointed out that this view, expressed as philosophy, also served the interests of the people involved.  "As Burke had declared…this law ... encroached upon property rights... . To the eighteenth century Whig, nothing was more sacred than the rights of property, ... the protest could not be entirely frank, and it masked personal interests behind lofty principles. These principles were not hypocritically pronounced, but they did not reveal the financial interests of Rockingham, Burke, and other persons who opposed the East India legislation as members of parliament, as holders of East India stock..."     

At the end of the Napoleonic period, the [[Congress of Vienna]] marked the beginning of a conservative reaction in Europe against the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution. Historians [[Will Durant|Will and Ariel Durant]] describe the conservative philosophy of the time as "defending the necessity of religion, the wisdom of tradition, the authority of the family, the advantages of legitimate monarchy, and the constant need to maintain political, moral, and economic dikes against the ever-swelling sea of popular ignorance, cupidity, violence, barbarism, and fertility."<ref> Will and Ariel Durant, "The Age of Napoleon", Simon and Schuster, 1975 ISBN 0-671-21988-X </ref> Vicomte [[Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald]], set forth the principles of French conservatism in ''Théorie du pouvoir politique et religieux'' (1796): "absolute monarchy, hereditary aristocracy, patriarchal authority in the family, and the moral and religious sovereignty of the popes over all the kings of Christendom."<ref> Will and Ariel Durant, ''The Age of Napoleon'', Simon and Schuster, 1975, ISBN 0-671-21988-X </ref> Along with [[Louis de Bonald]], [[Joseph de Maistre]] was the most influential spokesperson for [[counter-revolutionary]] and authoritarian conservatism, with the emphasis on monarchy as a guarantee of order in society. The [[legitimist]] movement was the political incarnation of this thought.

At the end of the Napoleonic period, the [[Congress of Vienna]] marked the beginning of a conservative reaction in Europe against the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution. Historians [[Will Durant|Will and Ariel Durant]] describe the conservative philosophy of the time as "defending the necessity of religion, the wisdom of tradition, the authority of the family, the advantages of legitimate monarchy, and the constant need to maintain political, moral, and economic dikes against the ever-swelling sea of popular ignorance, cupidity, violence, barbarism, and fertility." (Will and Ariel Durant, "The Age of Napoleon", Simon and Schuster, 1975 ISBN 0-671-21988-X ) Vicomte [[Louis Gabriel Ambroise de Bonald]], set forth the principles of French conservatism in ''Théorie du pouvoir politique et religieux'' (1796): "absolute monarchy, hereditary aristocracy, patriarchal authority in the family, and the moral and religious sovereignty of the popes over all the kings of Christendom." (Will and Ariel Durant, ''The Age of Napoleon'', Simon and Schuster, 1975, ISBN 0-671-21988-X) Along with [[Louis de Bonald]], [[Joseph de Maistre]] was the most influential spokesperson for [[counter-revolutionary]] and authoritarian conservatism, with the emphasis on monarchy as a guarantee of order in society. The [[legitimist]] movement was the political incarnation of this thought.

==Schools of conservatism==

==Schools of conservatism==

===Cultural conservatism===

===Cultural conservatism===

Cultural conservatism is a philosophy that supports preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture. The culture in question may be as large as [[Western culture]] or [[China|Chinese]] [[civilization]] or as small as that of [[Tibet]]. Cultural conservatives try to adapt norms handed down from the past. The norms may be romantic, like the [[anti-metric movement]] that demands the retention of [[avoirdupois]] weights and measures in Britain and opposes their replacement with the [[Metrication#United Kingdom|metric system]]. They may be institutional: in the West this has included [[chivalry]] and [[feudalism]], as well as [[capitalism]], [[laicité]] and the [[rule of law]].  

Cultural conservatism is a philosophy that supports preservation of the heritage of a nation or culture. The culture in question may be as large as [[Western culture]] or [[China|Chinese]] [[civilization]] or as small as that of [[Tibet]]. Cultural conservatives try to adapt norms handed down from the past. The norms may be romantic, like the [[anti-metric movement]] that demands the retention of [[avoirdupois]] weights and measures in Britain and opposes their replacement with the [[Metrication#United Kingdom|metric system]]. They may be institutional: in the West this has included [[chivalry]] and [[feudalism]], as well as [[capitalism]], [[laicité]] and the [[rule of law]].  

Because many religions preserve a founding text, or at least a set of well-established traditions, the possibility of Radical Religious Conservatism arises. These are radical both in the sense of abolishing the status quo and of a perceived return to the radix or root of a belief. They are ante conservative in their claim to be preserving the belief in its original or pristine form. Radical Religious Conservatism generally sees the status quo as corrupted by abuses, corruption, or heresy. One example of such a movement was the [[Protestant]] [[Reformation]].

Because many religions preserve a founding text, or at least a set of well-established traditions, the possibility of Radical Religious Conservatism arises. These are radical both in the sense of abolishing the status quo and of a perceived return to the radix or root of a belief. They are ante conservative in their claim to be preserving the belief in its original or pristine form. Radical Religious Conservatism generally sees the status quo as corrupted by abuses, corruption, or heresy. One example of such a movement was the [[Protestant]] [[Reformation]].

In [[Islam]], the [[Salafi]]st movement is often politically and socially radical, and is violently repressed by governments and distrusted by the majority of mainstream Muslims for that reason. Salafism seeks to impose, by force if necessary, its vision of a model Islamic society such as existed at the time of [[Muhammad]]'s passing from this world and for a short time thereafter. It rejects the later developments of Islamic societies, and can therefore be classified as a radical religious movement.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-salafi.htm Salafi Islam], globalsecurity.org</ref>

In [[Islam]], the [[Salafi]]st movement is often politically and socially radical, and is violently repressed by governments and distrusted by the majority of mainstream Muslims for that reason. Salafism seeks to impose, by force if necessary, its vision of a model Islamic society such as existed at the time of [[Muhammad]]'s passing from this world and for a short time thereafter. It rejects the later developments of Islamic societies, and can therefore be classified as a radical religious movement.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/islam-salafi.htm Salafi Islam], globalsecurity.org

Similar phenomena have arisen in practically all the world's religions, in many cases triggered by the violent cultural collision between the traditional society in question and the modern Western society that has developed throughout the world over the past 500 years. Much of what is labelled as radical religious conservatism in the modern world is in fact an indigenous fusion of traditional religious ideals with modern, European revolutionary philosophy, sometimes Marxist in nature.

Similar phenomena have arisen in practically all the world's religions, in many cases triggered by the violent cultural collision between the traditional society in question and the modern Western society that has developed throughout the world over the past 500 years. Much of what is labelled as radical religious conservatism in the modern world is in fact an indigenous fusion of traditional religious ideals with modern, European revolutionary philosophy, sometimes Marxist in nature.

The phrases "economic liberal" and "economic conservative" seem to be antonyms, diverging from modern [[neoliberalism]], and [[classical liberalism]] in the tradition of [[Adam Smith]].<ref> http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=1689 </ref>  Some conservatives  look to a modified free market order, such as the [[American System (economic plan)|American System]], [[ordoliberalism]], or [[Friedrich List|Friedrich List's]] [[National System]].  The latter view differs from strict [[laissez-faire]] in that the state's role is to promote competition while maintaining the national interest, community and identity.

The phrases "economic liberal" and "economic conservative" seem to be antonyms, diverging from modern [[neoliberalism]], and [[classical liberalism]] in the tradition of [[Adam Smith]].<ref> http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/viewArticle.asp?articleID=1689 </ref>  Some conservatives  look to a modified free market order, such as the [[American System (economic plan)|American System]], [[ordoliberalism]], or [[Friedrich List|Friedrich List's]] [[National System]].  The latter view differs from strict [[laissez-faire]] in that the state's role is to promote competition while maintaining the national interest, community and identity.

      

      

Outside the United States, "liberal" often refers only to free-market policies. For example, in Europe "liberal-conservative" is an accepted term. Differences in meaning and usage of the terms "liberal" and "conservative" have contributed to a great deal of confusion, and often the words seem to be used with no more meaning than "us" and "them". Conservatives and classical liberals are "allied against the common enemy, socialism," but classical liberals are less suspicious of big government than conservatives.<ref>Quinton, Anthony. ''Conservativism'', A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p. 246.</ref>'''

Outside the United States, "liberal" often refers only to free-market policies. For example, in Europe "liberal-conservative" is an accepted term. Differences in meaning and usage of the terms "liberal" and "conservative" have contributed to a great deal of confusion, and often the words seem to be used with no more meaning than "us" and "them". Conservatives and classical liberals are "allied against the common enemy, socialism," but classical liberals are less suspicious of big government than conservatives.(Quinton, Anthony. ''Conservativism'', A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit, Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p. 246.)'''

==Conservatism in different countries==

==Conservatism in different countries==

 

In western democracies, 'conservative' and 'right-wing' are two different terms. Certainly, in the west, liberals embodie the [[political left]]. Although left-wing groups and individuals may have conservative social and cultural attitudes, these attitudes are not accepted as legitimate characteristics of a political group that supports the individual rights of personhood. On economic policy and the economic system, conservatives and the right generally support the free market, although less so in Europe than in other places.

In western democracies, 'conservative' and 'right-wing' are two different terms. Certainly, in the west, liberals embodie the [[political left]]. Although left-wing groups and individuals may have conservative social and cultural attitudes, these attitudes are not accepted as legitimate characteristics of a political group that supports the individual rights of personhood. On economic policy and the economic system, conservatives and the right generally support the free market, although less so in Europe than in other places.

The overlap between 'respectable' conservatives and the extreme right is determined by the degree of political taboo, rather than inherent ideological incompatibility. In European parliamentary systems, conservatives currently ally with centrist or even leftist groups, rather than with the xenophobic-populist right, although critics have contended that the conservatives are taking in far-right ideas. For example, in December 2005, ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' claimed that [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] had implemented almost all of the far-right ''[[Front National]]'' (FN) measures proposed in its election program. All mainstream parties in [[Belgium]] cooperated to exclude the Flemish-[[separatist]] and xenophobic ''[[Vlaams Belang]]'', although some politicians wish to break this 'cordon sanitaire'.  And mainstream parties in France sometimes support each others' candidates in run-off elections, to exclude the ''Front National'' party. However, in March 1977, and then March 1983, FN was present on [[RPR]]-[[Union for French Democracy|UDF]] lists at municipal elections; in 1988, RPR and UDF right-wing conservative parties allied with FN in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] and [[Var (département)|Var]] regions. In March 1989, they had common lists in at least 28 cities of more than 9 000 inhabitants. Those alliances were condemned in 1991, but a dozen conservative deputies gained FN's support in 1997.

The overlap between 'respectable' conservatives and the extreme right is determined by the degree of political taboo, rather than inherent ideological incompatibility. In European parliamentary systems, conservatives currently ally with centrist or even leftist groups, rather than with the xenophobic-populist right, although critics have contended that the conservatives are taking in far-right ideas. For example, in December 2005, ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' claimed that [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] had implemented almost all of the far-right ''[[Front National]]'' (FN) measures proposed in its election program. All mainstream parties in [[Belgium]] cooperated to exclude the Flemish-[[separatist]] and xenophobic ''[[Vlaams Belang]]'', although some politicians wish to break this 'cordon sanitaire'.  And mainstream parties in France sometimes support each others' candidates in run-off elections, to exclude the ''Front National'' party. However, in March 1977, and then March 1983, FN was present on [[RPR]]-[[Union for French Democracy|UDF]] lists at municipal elections; in 1988, RPR and UDF right-wing conservative parties allied with FN in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] and [[Var (département)|Var]] regions. In March 1989, they had common lists in at least 28 cities of more than 9 000 inhabitants. Those alliances were condemned in 1991, but a dozen conservative deputies gained FN's support in 1997.

=== British conservatism ===

=== British conservatism ===

Conservatism in the [[United Kingdom]] is related to its counterparts in other Western nations, but has a distinct tradition. [[Edmund Burke]] is often considered the ''father of conservatism'' in Anglo-American circles. Burke was a [[British Whig Party|Whig]], while the short name "Tory" is given to the modern Conservative Party. Being an 18th century Whig does not preclude a person from being a major figure in the development of that Party. The modern day Party system cannot safely be traced back before the French Revolution and subsequent wars. The views of Burke remain a central tenet of conservative thinking across much of the English-speaking world. As one [[Australia]]n scholar argues, "For Edmund Burke and Australians of a like mind, the essence of conservatism lies not in a body of theory, but in the disposition to maintain those institutions seen as central to the beliefs and practices of society."<ref name="gw">Worthington, Glen, [http://web.archive.org/web/20060913184447/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/2001-02/02RN29.htm Conservatism in Australian National Politics], Parliament of Australia Parliamentary Library, 19 February 2002</ref>

Conservatism in the [[United Kingdom]] is related to its counterparts in other Western nations, but has a distinct tradition. [[Edmund Burke]] is often considered the ''father of conservatism'' in Anglo-American circles. Burke was a [[British Whig Party|Whig]], while the short name "Tory" is given to the modern Conservative Party. Being an 18th century Whig does not preclude a person from being a major figure in the development of that Party. The modern day Party system cannot safely be traced back before the French Revolution and subsequent wars. The views of Burke remain a central tenet of conservative thinking across much of the English-speaking world. As one [[Australia]]n scholar argues, "For Edmund Burke and Australians of a like mind, the essence of conservatism lies not in a body of theory, but in the disposition to maintain those institutions seen as central to the beliefs and practices of society." (Worthington, Glen, [http://web.archive.org/web/20060913184447/]  [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/2001-02/02RN29.htm} Conservatism in Australian National Politics], Parliament of Australia Parliamentary Library, 19 February 2002)

The old established form of English and, after the [[Acts of Union 1707|Act of Union]], British conservatism, was the [[Tory]] Party. It reflected the attitudes of a rural land owning class, and championed the institutions of the monarchy, the [[Anglican Communion|Anglican Church]], the family, and property as the best defence of the social order. In the early stages of the [[industrial revolution]], it seemed to be totally opposed to a process that seemed to undermine some of these bulwarks. The new industrial elite were seen by many as enemies to the social order.

The old established form of English and, after the [[Acts of Union 1707|Act of Union]], British conservatism, was the [[Tory]] Party. It reflected the attitudes of a rural land owning class, and championed the institutions of the monarchy, the [[Anglican Communion|Anglican Church]], the family, and property as the best defence of the social order. In the early stages of the [[industrial revolution]], it seemed to be totally opposed to a process that seemed to undermine some of these bulwarks. The new industrial elite were seen by many as enemies to the social order.

Conservatism in [[Australia]] is related to British and American conservatism in many respects, but has a distinct political tradition. Like conservatism in many other nations, Australian conservatism is traditionally composed of diverse groups and interests, which are united more by opposition to certain political developments than by a distinct shared ideology; as one scholar argues, "Australian conservatives are more readily characterised by what they reject than by any shared set of values."<ref name="gw"/>  

Conservatism in [[Australia]] is related to British and American conservatism in many respects, but has a distinct political tradition. Like conservatism in many other nations, Australian conservatism is traditionally composed of diverse groups and interests, which are united more by opposition to certain political developments than by a distinct shared ideology; as one scholar argues, "Australian conservatives are more readily characterised by what they reject than by any shared set of values."<ref name="gw"/>  

In terms of partisan politics, conservatism has often been defined as opposition to the [[Australian Labor Party]]; as such, many different groups have historically been grouped on the "conservative" side of Australian politics, such as "social conservatives...[[British Empire|Empire]] nationalists, organisations supporting rural interests, anti-socialist [[Catholics]], fundamentalist Christians and [[free-market]] [[liberalism|liberals]]."<ref name="gw"/> In contemporary Australian politics, the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] is often seen as the "conservative" party, which can surprise [[United States|American]] observers for whom [[liberalism]] is seen as opposed to conservatism.

In terms of partisan politics, conservatism has often been defined as opposition to the [[Australian Labor Party]]; as such, many different groups have historically been grouped on the "conservative" side of Australian politics, such as "social conservatives...[[British Empire|Empire]] nationalists, organisations supporting rural interests, anti-socialist [[Catholics]], fundamentalist Christians and [[free-market]] [[liberalism|liberals]]." In contemporary Australian politics, the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] is often seen as the "conservative" party, which can surprise [[United States|American]] observers for whom [[liberalism]] is seen as opposed to conservatism.

Historically, for the first seventy years after the [[Federation of Australia]], the non-Labor (and hence implicitly "conservative") side of Australian politics was associated with policies of moderate [[protectionism]] in trade, and of support for the [[welfare state]], coupled with maintenance of Australia's ties to the [[British Empire]]. Many scholars have seen the government of [[Robert Menzies]] as exemplifying this trend.<ref name="gw"/> However, from the 1980s, [[free-market]] economic policies were increasingly associated with conservatism in Australian politics, following the same trend as the United States and Britain under [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Margaret Thatcher]] respectively.<ref name="gw"/>

Historically, for the first seventy years after the [[Federation of Australia]], the non-Labor (and hence implicitly "conservative") side of Australian politics was associated with policies of moderate [[protectionism]] in trade, and of support for the [[welfare state]], coupled with maintenance of Australia's ties to the [[British Empire]]. Many scholars have seen the government of [[Robert Menzies]] as exemplifying this trend.<ref name="gw"/> However, from the 1980s, [[free-market]] economic policies were increasingly associated with conservatism in Australian politics, following the same trend as the United States and Britain under [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Margaret Thatcher]] respectively.

=== Europe ===

=== Europe ===

*[[Thatcherism]]

*[[Thatcherism]]

*[[Gaullism]]

*[[Gaullism]]

<!--=== China ===

=== China ===

In China conservatism is based on the teachings of [[Confucius|Kong Fuzi]] (Confucius). Confucius, who lived in a time of chaos and warring kingdoms, wrote extensively about the importance of the family, of social stability, and of obedience to just authority. His ideas continue to permeate Chinese society. Traditional Chinese conservatism imbued with Confucian thought have been resurgent in recent years, despite more than a half-century of authoritarian Marxist-Leninist rule.

In China conservatism is based on the teachings of [[Confucius|Kong Fuzi]] (Confucius). Confucius, who lived in a time of chaos and warring kingdoms, wrote extensively about the importance of the family, of social stability, and of obedience to just authority. His ideas continue to permeate Chinese society. Traditional Chinese conservatism imbued with Confucian thought have been resurgent in recent years, despite more than a half-century of authoritarian Marxist-Leninist rule.

Love of country and national pride has been resurgent as well as traditionalism. Chinese nationalism tends to speak highly of a centralized, powerful Chinese state. The government attempts to win and maintain the loyalty its citizens and of recently departed overseas Chinese. Recent bestseller ''[[China Can Say No]]'' expresses a sentiment in favor of a uniquely Chinese path that, tellingly, does not have to involve American norms, such as individualism and Western liberalism. Moreover, the tide may still be coming in for Chinese nationalism, as the next [[Generations of Chinese leadership|generation of Chinese leaders]] will have grown up in an environment imbued with nationalism.

Love of country and national pride has been resurgent as well as traditionalism. Chinese nationalism tends to speak highly of a centralized, powerful Chinese state. The government attempts to win and maintain the loyalty its citizens and of recently departed overseas Chinese. Recent bestseller ''[[China Can Say No]]'' expresses a sentiment in favor of a uniquely Chinese path that, tellingly, does not have to involve American norms, such as individualism and Western liberalism. Moreover, the tide may still be coming in for Chinese nationalism, as the next [[Generations of Chinese leadership|generation of Chinese leaders]] will have grown up in an environment imbued with nationalism.

Since the 1990s, there has been a neoconservative movement in China (not connected with the US [[neoconservative]] movement).-->

Since the 1990s, there has been a neoconservative movement in China (not connected with the US [[neoconservative]] movement).

==See also==

==See also==

*[[History of political Islam in Iran]]

*[[History of political Islam in Iran]]

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===Further reading===

===Further reading===

[[Category: General Reference]]

[[Category: General Reference]]