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Jump to navigationJump to searchNew page: In science, the term '''natural science''' refers to a rational approach to the study of the universe, which is understood as obeying rules or laws of [[nat...
In [[science]], the term '''natural science''' refers to a [[Rationalism|rational]] approach to the study of the [[universe]], which is understood as obeying [[rules]] or [[laws]] of [[nature|natural]] origin. The term ''natural science'' is also used to distinguish those fields that use the [[scientific method]] to study [[nature]] from the [[social sciences]], which use the scientific method to study human behavior and society, and from the [[formal science]]s, such as [[mathematics]] and [[logic]], which use a different [[methodology]].
==Overview==
Natural sciences form the basis for the [[applied science]]s. Together, the natural and applied sciences are distinguished from the [[social science]]s on the one hand, and from the [[humanities]], [[theology]] and the [[art]]s on the other. [[Mathematics]], [[statistics]] and [[computer science]] are not considered natural sciences, but provide many tools and frameworks used within the natural sciences.
Alongside this traditional usage, the phrase ''natural sciences'' is also sometimes used more narrowly to refer to its everyday usage, that is, related to [[natural history]]. In this sense "natural sciences" may refer to the [[biological science]]s and perhaps also the [[earth science]]s, as distinguished from the [[physical science]]s, including [[astronomy]], [[physics]], and [[chemistry]].
Within the natural sciences, the term [[hard science]] is sometimes used to describe those sub-fields that rely on experimental, [[quantification|quantifiable]] data or the [[scientific method]] and focus on accuracy and objectivity. These usually include physics, chemistry and many of the sub-fields of biology. By contrast, [[soft science]] is often used to describe the scientific fields that are more reliant on qualitiative research, including the social sciences.
==History==
Prior to the 17th century, the objective study of nature was known as [[natural philosophy]]. Over the next two centuries, however, a philosophical interpretation of nature was gradually replaced by a scientific approach using [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] methodology. The works of Sir [[Francis Bacon]] popularized this approach, thereby helping to forge the [[scientific revolution]].
By the 19th century the study of science had come into the purview of professionals and institutions, and in so doing it gradually acquired the more modern name of natural science. The term ''scientist'' was coined by [[William Whewell]] in an 1834 review of [[Mary Somerville]]'s ''On the Connexion of the Sciences''. However the word did not enter general use until nearly the end of the same century.
According to a famous 1923 textbook ''Thermodynamics – and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances'' by the American chemist [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] and the American physical chemist [[Merle Randall]], the natural sciences contain three great branches:
Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of ''natural science'' which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates - they are the [[mechanics]], [[electrodynamics]], and [[thermodynamics]].}}
==Disciplines of natural sciences==
===Astronomy===
This discipline is the science of [[Astronomical object|celestial objects]] and [[phenomena]] that originate outside the [[Earth's atmosphere]]. It is concerned with the evolution, [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[meteorology]], and [[motion (physics)|motion]] of celestial objects, as well as the [[physical cosmology|formation and development of the universe]]. Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of [[star]]s, [[planet]]s, [[comet]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]] and the [[cosmos]]. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomenon has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the [[interstellar medium]].)
While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomenon can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the seventeenth century. A key factor was [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s development of [[celestial mechanics]] and the laws of [[gravitation]], although it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. By the nineteenth century, astronomy had developed into a formal science with the introduction of instruments such as the [[spectroscope]] and [[photography]], along with much improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.
===Biology===
This field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines [[phenomenon|phenomena]] related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component [[biophysics]] up to complex [[ecology|ecologies]]. Biology is concerned with the [[characteristic]]s, [[scientific classification|classification]] and [[behavior]]s of [[organism]]s, as well as how [[species]] were formed and their interactions with each other and the [[natural environment]].
The biological fields of [[botany]], [[zoology]], and [[medicine]] date back to early periods of civilization, while [[microbiology]] was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science; once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things it was decided they were best studied as a whole. Some key developments in the science of biology were the discovery of
[[genetics]]; [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory of [[evolution]] through [[natural selection]]; the [[germ theory of disease]] and the application of the techniques of [[biochemistry|chemistry]] and [[biophysics|physics]] at the level of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] or [[organic molecule]].
Modern Biology is divided into sub-disciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. [[Molecular biology]] is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while [[cellular biology]] is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At a higher level, [[Physiology]] looks at the internal structure of organism, while [[ecology]] looks at how various organisms interrelate.
===Chemistry===
Constituting the scientific study of matter at the [[atom]]ic and [[molecule|molecular]] scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as [[gas]]es, molecules, [[crystal]]s, and [[metal]]s. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "[[the central science]]" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences.
Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of [[Alchemy]], a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of [[Robert Boyle]], the discoverer of gas, and [[Antoine Lavoisier]], who developed the theory of the [[Conservation of mass]]. The [[Discoveries of the chemical elements|discovery of the chemical elements]] and the concept of [[Atomic Theory]] began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of [[Phase (matter)|states of matter]], [[ion]]s, [[chemical bond]]s and [[chemical reaction]]s. The success of this science led to a complementary [[chemical industry]] that now plays a significant role in the world economy.
===Earth science===
{{main|Earth science}}
{{sect-stub}}
'''Earth science''' (also known as '''geoscience''', '''the geosciences''' or '''the Earth Sciences'''), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet [[Earth (planet)|Earth]], including [[geology]], [[geophysics]], [[hydrology]], [[meteorology]], [[physical geography]], [[oceanography]], and [[soil science]].
===Physics===
Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the [[universe]], the [[forces]] and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, the physics is regarded as the fundamental science as all other natural sciences utilize and obey the principles and laws set down by the field. Physics relies heavily on [[mathematics]] as the logical framework for formulation and quantification of principles.
The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on, with [[philosophy]] gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics include [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Law of universal gravitation|theory of universal gravitation]] and [[classical mechanics]], an understanding of [[electricity]] and it's relation to [[magnetism]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theories of [[special relativity|special]] and [[general relativity]], the development of [[thermodynamics]], and the [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] model of atomic and subatomic physics.
The field of physics is extremely broad, and can include such diverse studies as [[quantum mechanics]] and [[theoretical physics]] to [[applied physics]] and [[optics]]. Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area rather than being "universalists" like [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Lev Landau]], who worked in multiple areas.
===Cross-disciplines===
The distinctions between the natural science disciplines is not always sharp, and they share a number of cross-discipline fields. Physics plays a significant role in the other natural sciences, as represented by [[astrophysics]], [[geophysics]], [[physical chemistry]] and [[biophysics]]. Likewise chemistry is represented by such fields as [[biochemistry]] and [[astrochemistry]].
A particular example of a scientific discipline that draws upon multiple natural sciences is [[Environmental science]]. This field studies the interactions of physical, chemical and biological components of the [[Natural environment|environment]], with a particular regard to the effect of human activities and the impact on [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. This science also draws upon expertise from other fields such as economics, law and social sciences.
== See also ==
* [[List of academic disciplines]]
* [[Nature]]
** [[Natural history]]
** [[Natural philosophy]], the precursor of the physical sciences, but especially physics.
* [[Science]]
** [[Fields of science]]
*** Natural sciences
**** [[Natural Sciences (Durham)]] - Natural Sciences programme at the [[Durham University|University of Durham]], UK
**** [[Natural Sciences Tripos]] University of Cambridge, UK
*** [[Behavioral science]]s
*** [[Social sciences]]
** [[History of science]]
** [[History of technology]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.dur.ac.uk/natural.sciences/ Natural Sciences at Durham University]
* [http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/natscitripos/ Natural Sciences at Cambridge University]
* [http://www.bath.ac.uk/nat-sci/ Natural Sciences at the University of Bath]
* [http://hrst.mit.edu/ The History of Recent Science and Technology]
* [http://www.scibooks.org/ Reviews of Books About Natural Science] This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics in natural science.[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_science&action=edit]
==Overview==
Natural sciences form the basis for the [[applied science]]s. Together, the natural and applied sciences are distinguished from the [[social science]]s on the one hand, and from the [[humanities]], [[theology]] and the [[art]]s on the other. [[Mathematics]], [[statistics]] and [[computer science]] are not considered natural sciences, but provide many tools and frameworks used within the natural sciences.
Alongside this traditional usage, the phrase ''natural sciences'' is also sometimes used more narrowly to refer to its everyday usage, that is, related to [[natural history]]. In this sense "natural sciences" may refer to the [[biological science]]s and perhaps also the [[earth science]]s, as distinguished from the [[physical science]]s, including [[astronomy]], [[physics]], and [[chemistry]].
Within the natural sciences, the term [[hard science]] is sometimes used to describe those sub-fields that rely on experimental, [[quantification|quantifiable]] data or the [[scientific method]] and focus on accuracy and objectivity. These usually include physics, chemistry and many of the sub-fields of biology. By contrast, [[soft science]] is often used to describe the scientific fields that are more reliant on qualitiative research, including the social sciences.
==History==
Prior to the 17th century, the objective study of nature was known as [[natural philosophy]]. Over the next two centuries, however, a philosophical interpretation of nature was gradually replaced by a scientific approach using [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] methodology. The works of Sir [[Francis Bacon]] popularized this approach, thereby helping to forge the [[scientific revolution]].
By the 19th century the study of science had come into the purview of professionals and institutions, and in so doing it gradually acquired the more modern name of natural science. The term ''scientist'' was coined by [[William Whewell]] in an 1834 review of [[Mary Somerville]]'s ''On the Connexion of the Sciences''. However the word did not enter general use until nearly the end of the same century.
According to a famous 1923 textbook ''Thermodynamics – and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances'' by the American chemist [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] and the American physical chemist [[Merle Randall]], the natural sciences contain three great branches:
Aside from the logical and mathematical sciences, there are three great branches of ''natural science'' which stand apart by reason of the variety of far reaching deductions drawn from a small number of primary postulates - they are the [[mechanics]], [[electrodynamics]], and [[thermodynamics]].}}
==Disciplines of natural sciences==
===Astronomy===
This discipline is the science of [[Astronomical object|celestial objects]] and [[phenomena]] that originate outside the [[Earth's atmosphere]]. It is concerned with the evolution, [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[meteorology]], and [[motion (physics)|motion]] of celestial objects, as well as the [[physical cosmology|formation and development of the universe]]. Astronomy includes the examination, study and modeling of [[star]]s, [[planet]]s, [[comet]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]] and the [[cosmos]]. Most of the information used by astronomers is gathered by remote observation, although some laboratory reproduction of celestial phenomenon has been performed (such as the molecular chemistry of the [[interstellar medium]].)
While the origins of the study of celestial features and phenomenon can be traced back to antiquity, the scientific methodology of this field began to develop in the middle of the seventeenth century. A key factor was [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s introduction of the telescope to examine the night sky in more detail. The mathematical treatment of astronomy began with [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s development of [[celestial mechanics]] and the laws of [[gravitation]], although it was triggered by earlier work of astronomers such as [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. By the nineteenth century, astronomy had developed into a formal science with the introduction of instruments such as the [[spectroscope]] and [[photography]], along with much improved telescopes and the creation of professional observatories.
===Biology===
This field encompasses a set of disciplines that examines [[phenomenon|phenomena]] related to living organisms. The scale of study can range from sub-component [[biophysics]] up to complex [[ecology|ecologies]]. Biology is concerned with the [[characteristic]]s, [[scientific classification|classification]] and [[behavior]]s of [[organism]]s, as well as how [[species]] were formed and their interactions with each other and the [[natural environment]].
The biological fields of [[botany]], [[zoology]], and [[medicine]] date back to early periods of civilization, while [[microbiology]] was introduced in the 17th century with the invention of the microscope. However it was not until the 19th century that biology became a unified science; once scientists discovered commonalities between all living things it was decided they were best studied as a whole. Some key developments in the science of biology were the discovery of
[[genetics]]; [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory of [[evolution]] through [[natural selection]]; the [[germ theory of disease]] and the application of the techniques of [[biochemistry|chemistry]] and [[biophysics|physics]] at the level of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] or [[organic molecule]].
Modern Biology is divided into sub-disciplines by the type of organism and by the scale being studied. [[Molecular biology]] is the study of the fundamental chemistry of life, while [[cellular biology]] is the examination of the cell; the basic building block of all life. At a higher level, [[Physiology]] looks at the internal structure of organism, while [[ecology]] looks at how various organisms interrelate.
===Chemistry===
Constituting the scientific study of matter at the [[atom]]ic and [[molecule|molecular]] scale, chemistry deals primarily with collections of atoms, such as [[gas]]es, molecules, [[crystal]]s, and [[metal]]s. The composition, statistical properties, transformations and reactions of these materials are studied. Chemistry also involves understanding the properties and interactions of individual atoms for use in larger-scale applications. Most chemical processes can be studied directly in a laboratory, using a series of (often well-tested) techniques for manipulating materials, as well as an understanding of the underlying processes. Chemistry is often called "[[the central science]]" because of its role in connecting the other natural sciences.
Early experiments in chemistry had their roots in the system of [[Alchemy]], a set of beliefs combining mysticism with physical experiments. The science of chemistry began to develop with the work of [[Robert Boyle]], the discoverer of gas, and [[Antoine Lavoisier]], who developed the theory of the [[Conservation of mass]]. The [[Discoveries of the chemical elements|discovery of the chemical elements]] and the concept of [[Atomic Theory]] began to systematize this science, and researchers developed a fundamental understanding of [[Phase (matter)|states of matter]], [[ion]]s, [[chemical bond]]s and [[chemical reaction]]s. The success of this science led to a complementary [[chemical industry]] that now plays a significant role in the world economy.
===Earth science===
{{main|Earth science}}
{{sect-stub}}
'''Earth science''' (also known as '''geoscience''', '''the geosciences''' or '''the Earth Sciences'''), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet [[Earth (planet)|Earth]], including [[geology]], [[geophysics]], [[hydrology]], [[meteorology]], [[physical geography]], [[oceanography]], and [[soil science]].
===Physics===
Physics embodies the study of the fundamental constituents of the [[universe]], the [[forces]] and interactions they exert on one another, and the results produced by these interactions. In general, the physics is regarded as the fundamental science as all other natural sciences utilize and obey the principles and laws set down by the field. Physics relies heavily on [[mathematics]] as the logical framework for formulation and quantification of principles.
The study of the principles of the universe has a long history and largely derives from direct observation and experimentation. The formulation of theories about the governing laws of the universe has been central to the study of physics from very early on, with [[philosophy]] gradually yielding to systematic, quantitative experimental testing and observation as the source of verification. Key historical developments in physics include [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Law of universal gravitation|theory of universal gravitation]] and [[classical mechanics]], an understanding of [[electricity]] and it's relation to [[magnetism]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theories of [[special relativity|special]] and [[general relativity]], the development of [[thermodynamics]], and the [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] model of atomic and subatomic physics.
The field of physics is extremely broad, and can include such diverse studies as [[quantum mechanics]] and [[theoretical physics]] to [[applied physics]] and [[optics]]. Modern physics is becoming increasingly specialized, where researchers tend to focus on a particular area rather than being "universalists" like [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Lev Landau]], who worked in multiple areas.
===Cross-disciplines===
The distinctions between the natural science disciplines is not always sharp, and they share a number of cross-discipline fields. Physics plays a significant role in the other natural sciences, as represented by [[astrophysics]], [[geophysics]], [[physical chemistry]] and [[biophysics]]. Likewise chemistry is represented by such fields as [[biochemistry]] and [[astrochemistry]].
A particular example of a scientific discipline that draws upon multiple natural sciences is [[Environmental science]]. This field studies the interactions of physical, chemical and biological components of the [[Natural environment|environment]], with a particular regard to the effect of human activities and the impact on [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. This science also draws upon expertise from other fields such as economics, law and social sciences.
== See also ==
* [[List of academic disciplines]]
* [[Nature]]
** [[Natural history]]
** [[Natural philosophy]], the precursor of the physical sciences, but especially physics.
* [[Science]]
** [[Fields of science]]
*** Natural sciences
**** [[Natural Sciences (Durham)]] - Natural Sciences programme at the [[Durham University|University of Durham]], UK
**** [[Natural Sciences Tripos]] University of Cambridge, UK
*** [[Behavioral science]]s
*** [[Social sciences]]
** [[History of science]]
** [[History of technology]]
== External links ==
* [http://www.dur.ac.uk/natural.sciences/ Natural Sciences at Durham University]
* [http://www.cam.ac.uk/cambuniv/natscitripos/ Natural Sciences at Cambridge University]
* [http://www.bath.ac.uk/nat-sci/ Natural Sciences at the University of Bath]
* [http://hrst.mit.edu/ The History of Recent Science and Technology]
* [http://www.scibooks.org/ Reviews of Books About Natural Science] This site contains over 50 previously published reviews of books about natural science, plus selected essays on timely topics in natural science.[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Natural_science&action=edit]
