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A '''society''' is a [[group (sociology)|grouping]] of [[individual]]s, which is characterized by common interests and may have distinctive [[culture]] and [[institutions]]. In a society, members can be from a different [[ethnic group]]. A "Society" may refer to a particular people, such as the [[Nuer]], to a [[nation state]], such as [[Switzerland]], or to a broader cultural group, such as a [[Western society]]. Society can also refer to an organized group of people associated together for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes.
== Origin and usage ==
The English word "society" emerged in the [[15th century]] and is derived from the French ''société''. The French word, in turn, had its origin in the [[Latin]] ''societas'', a "friendly association with others," from ''socius'' meaning "companion, associate, comrade or business partner." The Latin word was derived from the Greek socus locus, and implied a social contract between members of the community. Implicit in the meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or interest, a common objective or common characteristics
In political science, the term is often used to mean the totality of human relationships, generally in contrast to ''[[state|the State]]'', i.e., the apparatus of rule or government within a territory:
{{quotation|I mean by it [the State] that summation of privileges and dominating positions which are brought into being by extra-economic power... I mean by Society, the totality of concepts of all purely natural relations and institutions between man and man...[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm] Franz Oppenheimer, ''The State.''
In the [[social sciences]] such as [[sociology]], ''society'' has been used {{Fact|date=February 2007}}to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed [[social system]], in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group.
According sociologist Richard Jenkins, the term addresses a number of important existential issues facing people:
1. How humans think and exchange information – the sensory world makes up only a fraction of human experience. In order to understand the [[world]], we have to conceive of [[human]] interaction in the abstract (i.e., society).
2. Many phenomena cannot be reduced to individual behavior – to explain certain conditions, a view of something "greater than the sum of its parts" is needed.
3. Collectives often endure beyond the lifespan of individual members.
4. The human condition has always meant going beyond the evidence of our senses; every aspect of our lives is tied to the collective. <ref> Jenkins, R. 2002. ''Foundations of Sociology.''
== Evolution of societies ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Society]] -->
According to anthropologist [[Maurice Godelier]], a critical novelty in human society, compared humans closest biological relatives ([[chimpanzees]] and [[bonobos]]), is the parental role assumed by the males, which were unaware of their "father" connection.<ref>[[Maurice Godelier]], Métamorphoses de la parenté, 2004</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://newleftreview.org/?view=2592 |title=New Left Review - Jack Goody: The Labyrinth of Kinship |accessdate=2007-07-24}}</ref>
[[Gerhard Lenski]], a [[sociologist]], differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial.<ref>Lenski, G. 1974. ''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.''</ref> This is somewhat similar to the system earlier developed by [[anthropologists]] [[Morton H. Fried]], a conflict theorist, and [[Elman Service]], an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of [[social inequality]] and the role of the [[state]]. This system of classification contains four categories:
* [[Hunter-gatherer]] bands, which are generally [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]].
* [[Tribe|Tribal]] societies in which there are some limited instances of [[social rank]] and prestige.
* [[Social stratification|Stratified]] structures led by [[tribal chief|chieftain]]s.
* [[Civilization]]s, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.
* [[All humanity|Humanity]], mankind, that upon which rest all the elements of society, including society's beliefs.
Over time, some [[cultures]] have progressed toward more-complex forms of [[organization]] and control. This [[cultural evolution]] has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal foodstocks to become [[Neolithic Revolution|agrarian village]]s. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into [[city-state]]s and [[nation-state]]s. [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/model_complex.html] The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations].</ref>
Today, anthropologists and many social scientists vigorously oppose the notion of cultural evolution and rigid "stages" such as these. In fact, much anthropological data has suggested that complexity (civilization, population growth and density, specialization, etc.) does not always take the form of hierarchical social organization or stratification.
Also, [[cultural relativism]] as a widespread approach/ethic has largely replaced notions of "primitive," better/worse, or "progress" in relation to cultures (including their material culture/technology and social organization).
== Characteristics of society ==
The following three components are common to all definitions of society:
* Social networks
* Criteria for membership, and
* Characteristic patterns of organization
Each of these will be explored further in the following sections.
== Social networks ==
Social networks are maps of the relationships between people. Structural features such as proximity, frequency of contact and type of relationship (e.g., relative, friend, colleague) define various social networks.
== Organization of society ==
Human societies are often organized according to their primary means of [[subsistence]]. As noted in the section on "[[Society#Evolution of societies|Evolution of societies]]", above, social scientists identify [[hunter-gatherer]] societies, nomadic [[pastoralism|pastoral]] societies, [[horticulture|horticulturalist]] or simple farming societies, and [[agriculture|intensive agricultural]] societies, also called [[civilization]]s. Some consider [[Industry|industrial]] and [[Post-industrial society|post-industrial]] societies to be qualitatively different from traditional agricultural societies.
One common theme for societies in general is that they serve to aid individuals in a time of crisis. Traditionally, when an individual requires aid, for example at birth, death, sickness, or disaster, members of that society will rally others to render aid, in some form—symbolic, linguistic, physical, mental, emotional, financial, medical, or religious. Many societies will distribute largess, at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of ''generosity'' can be seen in all known cultures; typically, prestige accrues to the generous individual or group. Conversely, members of a society may also shun or [[scapegoat]] members of the society who violate its [[Norm (sociology)|norms]]. Mechanisms such as [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|gift-giving]] and scapegoating, which may be seen in various types of human groupings, tend to be [[institution]]alized within a society. Social evolution as a phenomena carrier with itself certain elements that could be detrimental to the population it serves.
Some societies will bestow status on an individual or group of people, when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action. This type of [[recognition]] is bestowed by members of that society on the individual or group in the form of a name, title, manner of dress, or monetary reward. Males, in many societies, are particularly susceptible to this type of action and subsequent reward, even at the risk of their lives. Action by an individual or larger group in behalf of some cultural ideal is seen in all societies. The phenomena of community action, shunning, scapegoating, generosity, and shared risk and reward occur in subsistence-based societies and in more technology-based civilizations.
Societies may also be organized according to their [[political]] structure. In order of increasing size and complexity, there are [[band society|bands]], [[tribe]]s, [[chiefdom]]s, and [[state]] societies. These structures may have varying degrees of [[political power]], depending on the [[culture|cultural]] [[geography|geographical]], and [[history|historical]] environments that these societies must contend with. Thus, a more isolated society with the same level of technology and culture as other societies is more likely to survive than one in closer proximity to others that may encroach on their resources (''see'' [[history]] for examples}. A society that is unable to offer an effective response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society (''see'' [[technology]] for examples).
=== Shared belief or common goal ===
Peoples of many nations united by common political and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values are sometimes also said to be a society (such as Judeo-Christian, Eastern, and Western). When used in this context, the term is employed as a means of contrasting two or more "societies" whose members represent alternative conflicting and competing worldviews (''see'' [[Secret Societies]]).
Some [[academic]], learned and scholarly [[Voluntary association|associations]] describe themselves as ''societies'' (for example, the [[American Society of Mathematics]]. More commonly, professional organizations often refer to themselves as societies (e.g., the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]], [[American Chemical Society]]). In the [[United Kingdom]] and the United States, learned societies are normally nonprofit and have [[charitable organization|charitable]] status. In [[science]], they range in size to include national [[scientific societies]] (i.e., the [[Royal Society]]) to regional natural history societies. Academic societies may have interest in a wide range of subjects, including the [[arts]], [[humanities]] and [[science]].
In some countries (for example the [[United States]] and [[France]]), the term "society" is used in [[commerce]] to denote a partnership between [[investor]]s or to start a [[business]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], partnerships are not called societies, but [[cooperative]]s or [[mutual]]s are often known as societies (such as [[friendly society|friendly societies]] and [[building society|building societies]]). In [[Latin America]], the term society may also be used in commerce denoting a partnership between investors, or anonymous investors; for example: "Proveedor Industrial Anahuac S.A." where [[S.A.]] stands for Anonymous Society (Sociedad Anónima); however in [[Mexico]] in other type of partnership it would be declared as [[S.A. de C.V.]]
== Ontology ==
As a related note, there is still an ongoing debate in sociological and anthropological circles as to whether there exists an [[entity]] we could call society. Some [[Marxist]] theorists, like [[Louis Althusser]], [[Ernesto Laclau]] and [[Slavoj Zizek]], have argued that society is nothing more than an effect of the ruling [[ideology]] of a certain class system, and shouldn't be used as a sociological notion. Marx's concept of society as the sum total of [[social relations]] among members of a community contrasts with interpretations from the perspective of [[methodological individualism]] where society is simply the sum total of individuals in a territory.
== References ==
* [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/society Definition of Society] from the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]].
* [http://core.ecu.edu/soci/juskaa/SOCI2110/Lectures/Lect1 Lecture notes on "Defining Society"] from East Carolina University.
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8001/vcwsu/commons/topics/culture/glossary/society.html] Learning Commons - What is Culture ? - Glossary Item - Society]
* Effland, R. 1998. [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/model_complex.html] The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations] Mesa Community College.
* Jenkins, R. 2002. ''Foundations of Sociology.'' London: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-96050-5.
* Lenski, G. 1974. ''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.'' New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc.
* Raymond Williams, "Society", in: Williams, Key Words: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Fontana, 1976.
== External Link ==
*[http://www.bioeticaunbosque.edu.co/ Bioethics and society]
*[http://www.null-hypothesis.co.uk/article/280/ How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive]
[[Category: General Reference]]
== Origin and usage ==
The English word "society" emerged in the [[15th century]] and is derived from the French ''société''. The French word, in turn, had its origin in the [[Latin]] ''societas'', a "friendly association with others," from ''socius'' meaning "companion, associate, comrade or business partner." The Latin word was derived from the Greek socus locus, and implied a social contract between members of the community. Implicit in the meaning of society is that its members share some mutual concern or interest, a common objective or common characteristics
In political science, the term is often used to mean the totality of human relationships, generally in contrast to ''[[state|the State]]'', i.e., the apparatus of rule or government within a territory:
{{quotation|I mean by it [the State] that summation of privileges and dominating positions which are brought into being by extra-economic power... I mean by Society, the totality of concepts of all purely natural relations and institutions between man and man...[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm] Franz Oppenheimer, ''The State.''
In the [[social sciences]] such as [[sociology]], ''society'' has been used {{Fact|date=February 2007}}to mean a group of people that form a semi-closed [[social system]], in which most interactions are with other individuals belonging to the group.
According sociologist Richard Jenkins, the term addresses a number of important existential issues facing people:
1. How humans think and exchange information – the sensory world makes up only a fraction of human experience. In order to understand the [[world]], we have to conceive of [[human]] interaction in the abstract (i.e., society).
2. Many phenomena cannot be reduced to individual behavior – to explain certain conditions, a view of something "greater than the sum of its parts" is needed.
3. Collectives often endure beyond the lifespan of individual members.
4. The human condition has always meant going beyond the evidence of our senses; every aspect of our lives is tied to the collective. <ref> Jenkins, R. 2002. ''Foundations of Sociology.''
== Evolution of societies ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Society]] -->
According to anthropologist [[Maurice Godelier]], a critical novelty in human society, compared humans closest biological relatives ([[chimpanzees]] and [[bonobos]]), is the parental role assumed by the males, which were unaware of their "father" connection.<ref>[[Maurice Godelier]], Métamorphoses de la parenté, 2004</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://newleftreview.org/?view=2592 |title=New Left Review - Jack Goody: The Labyrinth of Kinship |accessdate=2007-07-24}}</ref>
[[Gerhard Lenski]], a [[sociologist]], differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial.<ref>Lenski, G. 1974. ''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.''</ref> This is somewhat similar to the system earlier developed by [[anthropologists]] [[Morton H. Fried]], a conflict theorist, and [[Elman Service]], an integration theorist, who have produced a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of [[social inequality]] and the role of the [[state]]. This system of classification contains four categories:
* [[Hunter-gatherer]] bands, which are generally [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]].
* [[Tribe|Tribal]] societies in which there are some limited instances of [[social rank]] and prestige.
* [[Social stratification|Stratified]] structures led by [[tribal chief|chieftain]]s.
* [[Civilization]]s, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.
* [[All humanity|Humanity]], mankind, that upon which rest all the elements of society, including society's beliefs.
Over time, some [[cultures]] have progressed toward more-complex forms of [[organization]] and control. This [[cultural evolution]] has a profound effect on patterns of community. Hunter-gatherer tribes settled around seasonal foodstocks to become [[Neolithic Revolution|agrarian village]]s. Villages grew to become towns and cities. Cities turned into [[city-state]]s and [[nation-state]]s. [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/model_complex.html] The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations].</ref>
Today, anthropologists and many social scientists vigorously oppose the notion of cultural evolution and rigid "stages" such as these. In fact, much anthropological data has suggested that complexity (civilization, population growth and density, specialization, etc.) does not always take the form of hierarchical social organization or stratification.
Also, [[cultural relativism]] as a widespread approach/ethic has largely replaced notions of "primitive," better/worse, or "progress" in relation to cultures (including their material culture/technology and social organization).
== Characteristics of society ==
The following three components are common to all definitions of society:
* Social networks
* Criteria for membership, and
* Characteristic patterns of organization
Each of these will be explored further in the following sections.
== Social networks ==
Social networks are maps of the relationships between people. Structural features such as proximity, frequency of contact and type of relationship (e.g., relative, friend, colleague) define various social networks.
== Organization of society ==
Human societies are often organized according to their primary means of [[subsistence]]. As noted in the section on "[[Society#Evolution of societies|Evolution of societies]]", above, social scientists identify [[hunter-gatherer]] societies, nomadic [[pastoralism|pastoral]] societies, [[horticulture|horticulturalist]] or simple farming societies, and [[agriculture|intensive agricultural]] societies, also called [[civilization]]s. Some consider [[Industry|industrial]] and [[Post-industrial society|post-industrial]] societies to be qualitatively different from traditional agricultural societies.
One common theme for societies in general is that they serve to aid individuals in a time of crisis. Traditionally, when an individual requires aid, for example at birth, death, sickness, or disaster, members of that society will rally others to render aid, in some form—symbolic, linguistic, physical, mental, emotional, financial, medical, or religious. Many societies will distribute largess, at the behest of some individual or some larger group of people. This type of ''generosity'' can be seen in all known cultures; typically, prestige accrues to the generous individual or group. Conversely, members of a society may also shun or [[scapegoat]] members of the society who violate its [[Norm (sociology)|norms]]. Mechanisms such as [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|gift-giving]] and scapegoating, which may be seen in various types of human groupings, tend to be [[institution]]alized within a society. Social evolution as a phenomena carrier with itself certain elements that could be detrimental to the population it serves.
Some societies will bestow status on an individual or group of people, when that individual or group performs an admired or desired action. This type of [[recognition]] is bestowed by members of that society on the individual or group in the form of a name, title, manner of dress, or monetary reward. Males, in many societies, are particularly susceptible to this type of action and subsequent reward, even at the risk of their lives. Action by an individual or larger group in behalf of some cultural ideal is seen in all societies. The phenomena of community action, shunning, scapegoating, generosity, and shared risk and reward occur in subsistence-based societies and in more technology-based civilizations.
Societies may also be organized according to their [[political]] structure. In order of increasing size and complexity, there are [[band society|bands]], [[tribe]]s, [[chiefdom]]s, and [[state]] societies. These structures may have varying degrees of [[political power]], depending on the [[culture|cultural]] [[geography|geographical]], and [[history|historical]] environments that these societies must contend with. Thus, a more isolated society with the same level of technology and culture as other societies is more likely to survive than one in closer proximity to others that may encroach on their resources (''see'' [[history]] for examples}. A society that is unable to offer an effective response to other societies it competes with will usually be subsumed into the culture of the competing society (''see'' [[technology]] for examples).
=== Shared belief or common goal ===
Peoples of many nations united by common political and cultural traditions, beliefs, or values are sometimes also said to be a society (such as Judeo-Christian, Eastern, and Western). When used in this context, the term is employed as a means of contrasting two or more "societies" whose members represent alternative conflicting and competing worldviews (''see'' [[Secret Societies]]).
Some [[academic]], learned and scholarly [[Voluntary association|associations]] describe themselves as ''societies'' (for example, the [[American Society of Mathematics]]. More commonly, professional organizations often refer to themselves as societies (e.g., the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]], [[American Chemical Society]]). In the [[United Kingdom]] and the United States, learned societies are normally nonprofit and have [[charitable organization|charitable]] status. In [[science]], they range in size to include national [[scientific societies]] (i.e., the [[Royal Society]]) to regional natural history societies. Academic societies may have interest in a wide range of subjects, including the [[arts]], [[humanities]] and [[science]].
In some countries (for example the [[United States]] and [[France]]), the term "society" is used in [[commerce]] to denote a partnership between [[investor]]s or to start a [[business]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], partnerships are not called societies, but [[cooperative]]s or [[mutual]]s are often known as societies (such as [[friendly society|friendly societies]] and [[building society|building societies]]). In [[Latin America]], the term society may also be used in commerce denoting a partnership between investors, or anonymous investors; for example: "Proveedor Industrial Anahuac S.A." where [[S.A.]] stands for Anonymous Society (Sociedad Anónima); however in [[Mexico]] in other type of partnership it would be declared as [[S.A. de C.V.]]
== Ontology ==
As a related note, there is still an ongoing debate in sociological and anthropological circles as to whether there exists an [[entity]] we could call society. Some [[Marxist]] theorists, like [[Louis Althusser]], [[Ernesto Laclau]] and [[Slavoj Zizek]], have argued that society is nothing more than an effect of the ruling [[ideology]] of a certain class system, and shouldn't be used as a sociological notion. Marx's concept of society as the sum total of [[social relations]] among members of a community contrasts with interpretations from the perspective of [[methodological individualism]] where society is simply the sum total of individuals in a territory.
== References ==
* [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/society Definition of Society] from the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]].
* [http://core.ecu.edu/soci/juskaa/SOCI2110/Lectures/Lect1 Lecture notes on "Defining Society"] from East Carolina University.
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8001/vcwsu/commons/topics/culture/glossary/society.html] Learning Commons - What is Culture ? - Glossary Item - Society]
* Effland, R. 1998. [http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/model_complex.html] The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations] Mesa Community College.
* Jenkins, R. 2002. ''Foundations of Sociology.'' London: Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 0-333-96050-5.
* Lenski, G. 1974. ''Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology.'' New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc.
* Raymond Williams, "Society", in: Williams, Key Words: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Fontana, 1976.
== External Link ==
*[http://www.bioeticaunbosque.edu.co/ Bioethics and society]
*[http://www.null-hypothesis.co.uk/article/280/ How Societies Choose to Fail or Survive]
[[Category: General Reference]]
