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Jump to navigationJump to searchNew page: '''Archaeology''', '''archeology''', or '''archæology''' (from Greek: αρχαίος, ''archaios'', combining form in Latin ''archae-'', "ancient"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge")...
'''Archaeology''', '''archeology''', or '''archæology''' (from Greek: αρχαίος, ''archaios'', combining form in Latin ''archae-'', "ancient"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "knowledge") is the study of [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[Artifact Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of [[hoard]]s of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian [[pharaoh]]s were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artifacts encourages looting and the [[illicit antiquities]] trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage.
The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor [[Third World]] countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient [[Sinagua]] people of [[Arizona]], clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the [[metal detector]] a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig.
===Public outreach===
Motivated by a desire to halt '''looting''', curb '''pseudoarchaeology''', and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting '''public-outreach campaigns'''. [http://www.sonoma.edu/asc/roadshow.html] They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artifact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists.
The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites.
===Descendant peoples===
In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive.
As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study.
Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.
While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.
====Repatriation====
A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] to the original descendants. An example of this occurred [[June 21]], [[2005]], when community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in [[Kanawagi, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years.
The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including [[beads]], [[tool]]s and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Islands]]. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[redcedar]] and [[birchbark]] boxes lined with redcedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[beaver pelts]].
Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.[http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp] Canadian Geographic Online }}
=== Lists ===
: ''Main list: [[List of basic archaeology topics]]''
* [[List of archaeological periods]]
* [[List of archaeological sites sorted by country]]
* [[List of archaeologists]]
* [[List of prominent paleoethnobotanists]]
=== Related topics ===
* [[Archaeoacoustics]]
* [[Biblical archaeology]]
* [[Excavation]]
* [[Prehistory]]
* [[GIS in archaeology]]
* [[Virtual artifact]]
* [[Archaeological sub-disciplines]]
* [[Indiana Jones]]
*''[[Queen of the Mountain]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.archaeologynews.org Archaeology News] Current News and Information pertaining to all areas of archaeology, plus free news feeds for webmasters.
* [http://nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php Excavation Sites] Archaeological work and volunteer pages.
* [http://www.career-descriptions.co.uk/archaeologist-career-description.htm Archaeologists career description]
* [http://www.anthropology-resources.net/ Anthropology Resources on the Internet] - Anthropology Resources on the Internet: a web directory, part of the WWW Virtual Library, with over 4000 links grouped in specialised topics.
* [http://www.archaeology.org/ ''Archaeology'' magazine] published by the Archaeological Institute of America
* [http://www.archaeologydirectory.com/ Archaeology Directory] - Directory of archaeological topics on the web.
* [http://www.territorioscuola.com/tsodp/dmoz.php3?browse=/Science/Social_Sciences/Archaeology/ TerritorioScuola ODP - Archaeology Resources]
* [http://www.shovelbums.org ShovelBums] - 12,500 professional archaeologists use this free and moderated service to find archaeology, CRM, academic jobs and training opportunities.
* [http://www.eculturalresources.com/jobs.php Archaeology Jobs] - Archaeology jobs, news and resources at eCultural Resources. A free service for job seekers and archaeology enthusiasts.
* [http://www.archaeologyfieldwork.com Archaeologyfieldwork.com] - Archaeology employment listings, resume and cv postings, cultural resource management firms throughout the world, volunteer opportunities, field schools, internships, photos, discussion forums, and other resources for those in the internet archaeological community.
The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor [[Third World]] countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient [[Sinagua]] people of [[Arizona]], clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the [[metal detector]] a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig.
===Public outreach===
Motivated by a desire to halt '''looting''', curb '''pseudoarchaeology''', and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting '''public-outreach campaigns'''. [http://www.sonoma.edu/asc/roadshow.html] They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artifact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation by professional archaeologists.
The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites.
===Descendant peoples===
In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artifacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive.
As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study.
Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.
While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.
====Repatriation====
A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] to the original descendants. An example of this occurred [[June 21]], [[2005]], when community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in [[Kanawagi, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years.
The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including [[beads]], [[tool]]s and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Islands]]. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[redcedar]] and [[birchbark]] boxes lined with redcedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[beaver pelts]].
Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement.[http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp] Canadian Geographic Online }}
=== Lists ===
: ''Main list: [[List of basic archaeology topics]]''
* [[List of archaeological periods]]
* [[List of archaeological sites sorted by country]]
* [[List of archaeologists]]
* [[List of prominent paleoethnobotanists]]
=== Related topics ===
* [[Archaeoacoustics]]
* [[Biblical archaeology]]
* [[Excavation]]
* [[Prehistory]]
* [[GIS in archaeology]]
* [[Virtual artifact]]
* [[Archaeological sub-disciplines]]
* [[Indiana Jones]]
*''[[Queen of the Mountain]]''
==External links==
* [http://www.archaeologynews.org Archaeology News] Current News and Information pertaining to all areas of archaeology, plus free news feeds for webmasters.
* [http://nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php Excavation Sites] Archaeological work and volunteer pages.
* [http://www.career-descriptions.co.uk/archaeologist-career-description.htm Archaeologists career description]
* [http://www.anthropology-resources.net/ Anthropology Resources on the Internet] - Anthropology Resources on the Internet: a web directory, part of the WWW Virtual Library, with over 4000 links grouped in specialised topics.
* [http://www.archaeology.org/ ''Archaeology'' magazine] published by the Archaeological Institute of America
* [http://www.archaeologydirectory.com/ Archaeology Directory] - Directory of archaeological topics on the web.
* [http://www.territorioscuola.com/tsodp/dmoz.php3?browse=/Science/Social_Sciences/Archaeology/ TerritorioScuola ODP - Archaeology Resources]
* [http://www.shovelbums.org ShovelBums] - 12,500 professional archaeologists use this free and moderated service to find archaeology, CRM, academic jobs and training opportunities.
* [http://www.eculturalresources.com/jobs.php Archaeology Jobs] - Archaeology jobs, news and resources at eCultural Resources. A free service for job seekers and archaeology enthusiasts.
* [http://www.archaeologyfieldwork.com Archaeologyfieldwork.com] - Archaeology employment listings, resume and cv postings, cultural resource management firms throughout the world, volunteer opportunities, field schools, internships, photos, discussion forums, and other resources for those in the internet archaeological community.
