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Jump to navigationJump to searchNew page: '''Sovereignty''' is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (e.g. legislative, judicial, and/or executive) authority over a geographic region, group of people, or onesel...
'''Sovereignty''' is the exclusive right to exercise supreme [[political]] (e.g. legislative, judicial, and/or executive) [[authority]] over a geographic region, group of people, or oneself. A ''sovereign'' is the supreme lawmaking authority, subject to no other, and most often the [[head of state]]. Thus the legal maxim, "there is no law without a sovereign."
==Notion==
The source or justification of sovereignty ("by God" or "by people") must be distinguished from its exercise by branches of government. In [[democratic]] states, [[popular sovereignty|sovereignty]] is held by the people. This is known as [[popular sovereignty]]; it may be exercised directly, as in a [[popular assembly]], or, more commonly, indirectly through the election of representatives to government. This is known as a [[representative democracy]], a system of government currently used in most western nations and former colonies. Popular sovereignty also exists in other forms, such as in [[constitutional monarchies]], usually identical in political reality as in the [[Commonwealth Realm]]s. Systems of representative democracy can also be mixed with other methods of government, for instance the use of [[referendum|referenda]] in many countries .
In this model, national sovereignty is of an eternal origin, such as nature, or a god, legitimating the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine right of kings]] in [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]] or a [[theocracy]].
A more formal distinction is whether the law is held to be sovereign, which constitutes a true state of law: the [[letter of the law]] (if constitutionally correct) is applicable and enforceable, even when against the political will of the nation, as long as not formally changed following the constitutional procedure. Strictly speaking, any deviation from this principle constitutes a revolution or a coup d'état, regardless of the intentions.
In constitutional and international law, the concept of sovereignty also pertains to a government possessing full control over its own affairs within a territorial or geographical area or limit, and in certain context to various organs (such as courts of law) possessing legal jurisdiction in their own chief, rather than by mandate or under supervision. Determining whether a specific entity is sovereign is not an exact science, but often a matter of diplomatic dispute.
==History of the concept of sovereignty==
''[[Basileus]]'' is the Greek [[concept]] for "Sovereign", which designs who has the ''[[auctoritas]]'', which is to be distinguished from simple ''[[imperium]]'', retained by ''[[archons]]'' (or "[[magistrates]]").
[[Jean Bodin]] (1530-1596) is considered to be the modern initiator of the concept of sovereignty, with his 1576 treatise ''Six Books on the Republic'' which described the sovereign as a ruler beyond human [[law]] and subject only to the divine or [[natural law]]. He thus predefined the scope of the [[divine right of kings]], stating "''Sovereignty is a Republic's absolute and perpetual power''". Sovereignty is [[absolute]], thus indivisible, but not without any limits: it exercises itself only in the [[public]] sphere, not in the [[Private sector|private]] sphere. It is perpetual, because it does not expire with its holder (as ''auctoritas'' does). In other words, sovereignty is no one's property: by essence, it is inalienable.
These characteristics would decisively shape the concept of sovereignty, which we can find again in the [[social contract]] theories, for example, in [[Rousseau]]'s (1712-1778) definition of [[popular sovereignty]], which only differs in that he considers the people to be the legitimate sovereign. Likewise, it is inalienable - Rousseau condemned the distinction between the origin and the exercise of sovereignty, a distinction upon which [[constitutional monarchy]] or [[representative democracy]] are founded. [[Machiavelli]], [[Hobbes]], [[Locke]] and [[Montesquieu]] are also key figures in the unfolding of the concept of sovereignty.
[[Carl Schmitt]] (1888-1985) defined sovereignty as "the power to decide the [[state of exception]]", in an attempt, argues [[Giorgio Agamben]], to counter [[Walter Benjamin]]'s theory of [[violence]] as radically disjoint from law. [[Georges Bataille]]'s heterodox conception of sovereignty, which may be said to be an "anti-sovereignty", also inspired many thinkers, such as [[Jacques Derrida]], Agamben or [[Jean-Luc Nancy]].
==Different views of sovereignties==
There exist vastly differing views on the moral bases of sovereignty. These views translate into various bases for legal systems:
* Partisans of the [[divine right of kings]] argue that the [[monarch]] is sovereign by divine right, and not by the agreement of the people. Taken to its conclusion, this may translate into a system of [[absolute monarchy]].
* The second book of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's [[Du Contrat Social, ou Principes du droit politique]] (1762) deals with sovereignty and its rights. Sovereignty, or the general will, is inalienable, for the will cannot be transmitted; it is indivisible, since it is essentially general; it is infallible and always right, determined and limited in its power by the common interest; it acts through laws. Law is the decision of the general will in regard to some object of common interest, but though the general will is always right and desires only good, its judgment is not always enlightened, and consequently does not always see wherein the common good lies; hence the necessity of the legislator. But the legislator has, of himself, no authority; he is only a guide who drafts and proposes laws, but the people alone (that is, the sovereign or general will) has authority to make and impose them.
* Democracy is based on the concept of ''[[popular sovereignty]]''. [[Representative democracies]] permit (against Rousseau's thought) a transfer of the exercise of sovereignty from the people to the parliament or the government. [[Parliamentary sovereignty]] refers to a representative democracy where the Parliament is, ultimately, the source of sovereignty, and not the executive power.
* [[Anarchist]]s and some [[libertarian]]s deny the sovereignty of states and governments. Anarchists often argue for a specific individual kind of sovereignty, such as the [[Anarch (sovereign individual)|Anarch as a sovereign individual]]. [[Salvador Dalí]], for instance, talked of "anarcho-monarchist" (as usual, tongue in cheek); [[Antonin Artaud]] of ''[[Elagabalus|Heliogabalus]]: Or, The Crowned Anarchist''; [[Max Stirner]] of ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]''; [[Georges Bataille]] and [[Jacques Derrida]] of a kind of "antisovereignty". Therefore, anarchists join a classical conception of the individual as sovereign of himself, which forms the basis of [[political consciousness]]. The unified consciousness is sovereignty over one's own body, as [[Nietzsche]] demonstrated (see also [[Pierre Klossowski]]'s book on ''Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle''). ''See also [[self-ownership]] and [[Sovereignty of the individual]]''.
* Some supporters of [[democratic globalization]] consider that [[nation-state]]s should yield some of their power to a [[world government]] controlled by world citizens instead of being organized as now in an [[intergovernmental]] basis.
The key element of sovereignty in the legalistic sense is that of '''exclusivity''' of [[jurisdiction]].
Specifically, when a decision is made by a sovereign entity, it cannot generally be overruled by a higher authority. Further, it is generally held that another legal element of sovereignty requires not only the legal right to exercise power, but the actual exercise of such power. ("No ''de jure'' sovereignty without ''de facto'' sovereignty.") In other words, neither claiming/being proclaimed Sovereign, ''nor'' merely exercising the power of a Sovereign is sufficient; sovereignty requires ''both'' elements.
==Territorial sovereignty==
Following the [[Thirty Years' War]], a European religious conflict that embroiled much of the continent, the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in [[1648]] established the notion of territorial sovereignty as a doctrine of noninterference in the affairs of other nations. The 1789 [[French Revolution]] shifted the possession of sovereignty from the sovereign ruler to the nation and its people.
==Sovereignty in international law==
In [[international law]], ''sovereignty'' is the legitimate exercise of power by a [[state (law)|state]]. ''[[De jure]]'' sovereignty is the legal right to do so; ''[[de facto]]'' sovereignty is the ability in fact to do so (which becomes of special concern upon the failure of the usual expectation that de jure and de facto sovereignty exist at the place and time of concern, and rest in the same organization). Foreign governments ''recognize'' the sovereignty of a state over a territory, or refuse to do so.
For instance, in theory, both the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] considered themselves sovereign governments over the whole territory of [[mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]]. Though some foreign governments recognize the Republic of China as the valid state, most now recognize the People's Republic of China. However, de facto, the People's Republic of China exercises sovereign power over mainland China but not Taiwan, while the Republic of China exercises its effective administration only over Taiwan and some outlying islands but not mainland China. Since [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]]s are only exchanged between sovereign high parties, the countries recognizing the People's Republic often entertain de facto but not de jure diplomatic relationships with Taiwan by maintaining 'offices of representation', such as the [[American Institute in Taiwan]], rather than embassies there.
The autonomous province of [[Kosovo]] in [[Serbia]] provides a somewhat similar example, where the government of Serbia remains the de jure sovereign power but the [[United Nations]] has exercised de facto control since [[1999]]. The province is still recognized as part of Serbia, though the Serbian government has no practical authority on the ground.
Sovereignty may be recognized even when the sovereign body possesses no territory or its territory is under partial or total occupation by another power. The [[Holy See]] was in this position between the annexation in [[1870]] of the [[Papal States]] by Italy and the signing of the [[Lateran Treaties]] in [[1929]], when it was recognised as sovereign by many (mostly [[Roman Catholic]]) states despite possessing no territory – a situation resolved when the Lateran Treaties granted the Holy See sovereignty over the [[Vatican City]]. The [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]] is likewise a non-territorial body that claims to be a sovereign entity, though it is not universally recognized as such.
Similarly, the governments-in-exile of many European states (for instance, [[Norway]] and the [[Netherlands]]) during the [[Second World War]] were regarded as sovereign despite their territories being under foreign occupation; their governance resumed as soon as the occupation had ended. The government of [[Kuwait]] was in a similar situation ''vis-á-vis'' the [[Iraq]]i occupation of its country during [[1990]]-[[1991]].
==Sovereignty and federalism==
In [[Federal republic|federal]] [[System of government|systems of government]], such as that of the [[United States]], ''sovereignty'' also refers to powers which a state government possesses independently of the federal government; this is called "clipped sovereignty."
The question whether the individual states, particularly the so-called 'Confederate States' of the American Union remained sovereign became a matter of debate in the USA, especially in its first century of existence:
* According to the theory of [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], the states had entered into an agreement from which they might withdraw if other parties broke the terms of agreement, and they remained sovereign. These individuals contributed to the theoretical basis for acts of [[secession]], as occurred just before the [[American Civil War]]. However, they propounded this as part of a general theory of "[[nullification]]," in which a state had the right to refuse to accept any Federal law that it found to be unconstitutional, regardless of [[judicial review]].
Likewise, according to the theory put forth by James Madison in the [[Federalist Papers]] "each State, in ratifying the Constitution, was to be considered as a sovereign body, independent of all others, and only to be bound by its own voluntary act. In this relation, then, the new Constitution [was to be] a federal, and not a national constitution." In the end, Madison likewise compromised with the [[Anti-federalists]] to modify the Constitution to protect state sovereignty: At the 1787 constitutional convention a proposal was made to allow the federal government to suppress a seceding state. James Madison rejected it saying, "A Union of the States containing such an ingredient seemed to provide for its own destruction. The use of force against a State would look more like a declaration of war than an infliction of punishment and would probably be considered by the party attacked as a dissolution of all previous compacts by which it might be bound."
In his Report on the Virginia Resolutions, James Madison wrote that "The states, then, being the parties to the constitutional compact, and in their sovereign capacity, it follows of necessity that there can be no tribunal, above their authority, to decide, in the last resort, whether the compact made by them be violated; and consequently, that, as the parties to it, they must themselves decide, in the last resort, such questions as may be of sufficient magnitude to require their interposition.” Madison even made a dire prediction of what would happen if this was denied, stating that “If the deliberate exercise of dangerous powers, palpably withheld by the Constitution, could not justify the parties to it in interposing even so far as to arrest the progress of the evil, and thereby to preserve the Constitution itself, as well as to provide for the safety of the parties to it, there would be an end to all relief from usurped power, and a direct subversion of the rights specified or recognized under all the state constitutions, as well as a plain denial of the fundamental principle on which our independence itself was declared."
During the first half-century after the Constitution was ratified, the right of secession was asserted on several occasions, and various states considered secession (including, for example, the [[New England]] states during the [[War of 1812]]; in response, not a single state objected on the grounds that such was unlawful. It was not until later, c. 1830, that [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Joseph Story]], [[Daniel Webster]] and others began to publish the arbitrary theory that secession was illegal, and that the United States was a supremely sovereign nation over the various member-states. These writers inspired [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s later declaration that "no state may lawfully get out of the Union by its own mere motion", based on the premise that "the Union is older than the Constitution or the even states," conflating all prior unions with the constitutional union; however in reality the states, in forming the Union of which he spoke, had each ''seceded'' from the prior Confederated union of 1781, to form that constitutional union between nine of the states on June 21, 1788; however four states refused until various conditions were met--- including the addition of the [[Bill of Rights]]--, and so both unions continued to exist ''in perpetuity'' after that, until the final states of North Carolina and Rhode Island likewise joined the Constitutional union over a year afterward-- thus ''ending'' the original confederated union.
==Miscellaneous==
* [[Tribal sovereignty]] refers to the right of [[tribe]]s or of federally recognized [[Native Americans in the United State|Native American]] nations to exercise limited jurisdiction within and sometimes beyond [[Indian reservation|reservation]] boundaries.
* In some regions of the world, such as [[Quebec]] and Indian [[Kashmir]], the word "sovereignty" has become the preferred synonym for national [[independence]] (referring in this case to "national sovereignty" or the right of national [[self-determination]], as explicited by example in [[Woodrow Wilson|US President Wilson]]'s ''[[Fourteen Points]]'' - 1918). Compare the [[Māori]] term [[rangatiratanga]], and the concept of [[self-determination]].
* The [[Holy See]] is recognized as sovereign subject under international law (separate entity in international law vis-à-vis [[Vatican City]], which has a very small amount of territory enclaved in the Italian capital Rome).
* A case ''[[sui generis]]'', though often contested, is the [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]], the third sovereign mini-state based in an enclave in the Italian capital (since in 1869 the Palazzo di Malta and the Villa Malta receive [[extraterritorial]] rights, in this way becoming the only "sovereign" territorial possessions of the modern Order), which is the last existing heir to one of several once militarily significant, [[crusader state]]s of sovereign [[military order]]s; in 1607 its Grand masters were also made by the Holy Roman Emperor [[Reichsfürst]] ('prince of the Holy Roman Empire', granting a seat in the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] or Imperial Diet, at the time the closest permanent equivalent to a UN-type general assembly; confirmed 1620), the sovereign rights never deposed, only the territories lost; several modern states still maintain full diplomatic relations (94) with the order (now de facto 'the most prestigious service club'), and the UN awarded it observer status.
* Just like the office of [[Head of state]] (whether sovereignty is vested in it or not) can be vested jointly in several persons within a state, the sovereign jurisdiction over a single political territory can be shared jointly by two or more consenting powers, notably in the forms of a [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]] or of (as still in [[Andorra]]) a [[co-principality]]
* [[Thomas Hobbes]] wrote that Sovereignty was the very soul of the Leviathan.
* The theological system [[Calvinism]] asserts that [[God]] is sovereign in all things, including [[salvation]].
An underdeveloped aspect of sovereignty is individual sovereignty meaning the ability of individuals to have effective control over their everyday lives. Individuals have no genuine sovereignty unless they have secure income sufficient to satisfy basic need and rare is the politics or economics, such as [[binary economics]], which consciously upholds individual sovereignty by guaranteeing that income.
==Sovereign as a title==
In some cases, the title sovereign is not just a generic term, but an actual (part of the) formal style of a [[Head of state]].
Thus from 22 June, 1934, to 29 May, 1953, (the title "Emperor of India" was dropped as of 15 August, 1947, by retroactive proclamation dated 22 June, 1948), the [[King of South Africa]] was styled in the [[Dominion]] of [[South Africa]]: "By the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India and ''Sovereign'' in and over the Union of South Africa." Upon the accession of Elizabeth II to the Throne of South Africa in 1952, the title was changed to Queen of South Africa and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth, parallel to the style used in almost all the other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s.
The adjective form can also be used in a Monarch's full style, as in pre-imperial Russia, 16 January, 1547 - 22 November, 1721: ''Bozhiyeyu Milostiyu Velikiy/Velikaya '''Gosudar'/Gosudarynya''' Tsar'/Tsaritsa i Velikiy/Velikaya Knyaz'/Knyaginya N.N. vseya Rossiy Samodyerzhets'' "By the Grace of God Great '''Sovereign Tsar'''/Tsarina and Grand Prince/Princess, N.N., of All Russia, Autocrat"
==See also==
* ''[[Seigniorage]]'', the sovereign power to issue money
* ''[[Basileus]]''
* [[Rousseau]]'s classic theory of [[popular sovereignty]]
* [[Carl Schmitt]]'s theory of sovereignty as the power to ''decide'' the instauration of the [[state of emergency|state of exception]] (according to [[Giorgio Agamben]], a response to [[Walter Benjamin]]'s theorization of a "pure violence" unrelated with law)
* [[Colonization]]
* [[Constitutive theory of statehood]]
* [[Declarative theory of statehood]]
* [[Dictatorship]]
* [[Divine right of kings]] ([[Jean Bodin|Bodin]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], etc.)
* [[Leadership]]
* [[Montevideo Convention]]
* [[Neo-medievalism]]
* [[Non-Intervention|Non-intervention]]
* [[Plenary authority]]
* [[Puerto Rican Independence Movement]]
* [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]]
* [[Self-determination]]
* [[Self-ownership]]
* [[Social contract]] theories (Hobbes, [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]])
* [[State]]
* [[Suzerainty]]
* [[Parliamentary sovereignty]]
* [[Popular sovereignty]]
* [[Sovereigntist]]
* [[Westphalian sovereignty]]
==References==
* [http://www.law.ufl.edu/faculty/publications/pdf/sov.pdf The Changing Character of Sovereignty in International Law and International Relations] by Winston P. Nagan and Craig Hammer of the Levine College of Law, University of Florida
* [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=sovereign&searchmode=none Etymology OnLine]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sovereignty/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=990885 The Extinction of Nation-States]
* [http://kennedy.byu.edu/partners/WFPC/alrfouh.html Protection of national sovereign rights under international law]
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen]
* ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2882397.stm Catalan bid for 'sovereignty']'', BBC NEWS
==External links==
*[http://www.burneylawfirm.com/international_law_primer.htm A Brief Primer on International Law]
*[http://www.un.org Official United Nations website]
*[http://www.un.org/law Official UN website on International Law]
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/ Official website of the International Court of Justice]
[[Category: General Reference]]
==Notion==
The source or justification of sovereignty ("by God" or "by people") must be distinguished from its exercise by branches of government. In [[democratic]] states, [[popular sovereignty|sovereignty]] is held by the people. This is known as [[popular sovereignty]]; it may be exercised directly, as in a [[popular assembly]], or, more commonly, indirectly through the election of representatives to government. This is known as a [[representative democracy]], a system of government currently used in most western nations and former colonies. Popular sovereignty also exists in other forms, such as in [[constitutional monarchies]], usually identical in political reality as in the [[Commonwealth Realm]]s. Systems of representative democracy can also be mixed with other methods of government, for instance the use of [[referendum|referenda]] in many countries .
In this model, national sovereignty is of an eternal origin, such as nature, or a god, legitimating the [[Divine Right of Kings|divine right of kings]] in [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]] or a [[theocracy]].
A more formal distinction is whether the law is held to be sovereign, which constitutes a true state of law: the [[letter of the law]] (if constitutionally correct) is applicable and enforceable, even when against the political will of the nation, as long as not formally changed following the constitutional procedure. Strictly speaking, any deviation from this principle constitutes a revolution or a coup d'état, regardless of the intentions.
In constitutional and international law, the concept of sovereignty also pertains to a government possessing full control over its own affairs within a territorial or geographical area or limit, and in certain context to various organs (such as courts of law) possessing legal jurisdiction in their own chief, rather than by mandate or under supervision. Determining whether a specific entity is sovereign is not an exact science, but often a matter of diplomatic dispute.
==History of the concept of sovereignty==
''[[Basileus]]'' is the Greek [[concept]] for "Sovereign", which designs who has the ''[[auctoritas]]'', which is to be distinguished from simple ''[[imperium]]'', retained by ''[[archons]]'' (or "[[magistrates]]").
[[Jean Bodin]] (1530-1596) is considered to be the modern initiator of the concept of sovereignty, with his 1576 treatise ''Six Books on the Republic'' which described the sovereign as a ruler beyond human [[law]] and subject only to the divine or [[natural law]]. He thus predefined the scope of the [[divine right of kings]], stating "''Sovereignty is a Republic's absolute and perpetual power''". Sovereignty is [[absolute]], thus indivisible, but not without any limits: it exercises itself only in the [[public]] sphere, not in the [[Private sector|private]] sphere. It is perpetual, because it does not expire with its holder (as ''auctoritas'' does). In other words, sovereignty is no one's property: by essence, it is inalienable.
These characteristics would decisively shape the concept of sovereignty, which we can find again in the [[social contract]] theories, for example, in [[Rousseau]]'s (1712-1778) definition of [[popular sovereignty]], which only differs in that he considers the people to be the legitimate sovereign. Likewise, it is inalienable - Rousseau condemned the distinction between the origin and the exercise of sovereignty, a distinction upon which [[constitutional monarchy]] or [[representative democracy]] are founded. [[Machiavelli]], [[Hobbes]], [[Locke]] and [[Montesquieu]] are also key figures in the unfolding of the concept of sovereignty.
[[Carl Schmitt]] (1888-1985) defined sovereignty as "the power to decide the [[state of exception]]", in an attempt, argues [[Giorgio Agamben]], to counter [[Walter Benjamin]]'s theory of [[violence]] as radically disjoint from law. [[Georges Bataille]]'s heterodox conception of sovereignty, which may be said to be an "anti-sovereignty", also inspired many thinkers, such as [[Jacques Derrida]], Agamben or [[Jean-Luc Nancy]].
==Different views of sovereignties==
There exist vastly differing views on the moral bases of sovereignty. These views translate into various bases for legal systems:
* Partisans of the [[divine right of kings]] argue that the [[monarch]] is sovereign by divine right, and not by the agreement of the people. Taken to its conclusion, this may translate into a system of [[absolute monarchy]].
* The second book of Jean-Jacques Rousseau's [[Du Contrat Social, ou Principes du droit politique]] (1762) deals with sovereignty and its rights. Sovereignty, or the general will, is inalienable, for the will cannot be transmitted; it is indivisible, since it is essentially general; it is infallible and always right, determined and limited in its power by the common interest; it acts through laws. Law is the decision of the general will in regard to some object of common interest, but though the general will is always right and desires only good, its judgment is not always enlightened, and consequently does not always see wherein the common good lies; hence the necessity of the legislator. But the legislator has, of himself, no authority; he is only a guide who drafts and proposes laws, but the people alone (that is, the sovereign or general will) has authority to make and impose them.
* Democracy is based on the concept of ''[[popular sovereignty]]''. [[Representative democracies]] permit (against Rousseau's thought) a transfer of the exercise of sovereignty from the people to the parliament or the government. [[Parliamentary sovereignty]] refers to a representative democracy where the Parliament is, ultimately, the source of sovereignty, and not the executive power.
* [[Anarchist]]s and some [[libertarian]]s deny the sovereignty of states and governments. Anarchists often argue for a specific individual kind of sovereignty, such as the [[Anarch (sovereign individual)|Anarch as a sovereign individual]]. [[Salvador Dalí]], for instance, talked of "anarcho-monarchist" (as usual, tongue in cheek); [[Antonin Artaud]] of ''[[Elagabalus|Heliogabalus]]: Or, The Crowned Anarchist''; [[Max Stirner]] of ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]''; [[Georges Bataille]] and [[Jacques Derrida]] of a kind of "antisovereignty". Therefore, anarchists join a classical conception of the individual as sovereign of himself, which forms the basis of [[political consciousness]]. The unified consciousness is sovereignty over one's own body, as [[Nietzsche]] demonstrated (see also [[Pierre Klossowski]]'s book on ''Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle''). ''See also [[self-ownership]] and [[Sovereignty of the individual]]''.
* Some supporters of [[democratic globalization]] consider that [[nation-state]]s should yield some of their power to a [[world government]] controlled by world citizens instead of being organized as now in an [[intergovernmental]] basis.
The key element of sovereignty in the legalistic sense is that of '''exclusivity''' of [[jurisdiction]].
Specifically, when a decision is made by a sovereign entity, it cannot generally be overruled by a higher authority. Further, it is generally held that another legal element of sovereignty requires not only the legal right to exercise power, but the actual exercise of such power. ("No ''de jure'' sovereignty without ''de facto'' sovereignty.") In other words, neither claiming/being proclaimed Sovereign, ''nor'' merely exercising the power of a Sovereign is sufficient; sovereignty requires ''both'' elements.
==Territorial sovereignty==
Following the [[Thirty Years' War]], a European religious conflict that embroiled much of the continent, the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in [[1648]] established the notion of territorial sovereignty as a doctrine of noninterference in the affairs of other nations. The 1789 [[French Revolution]] shifted the possession of sovereignty from the sovereign ruler to the nation and its people.
==Sovereignty in international law==
In [[international law]], ''sovereignty'' is the legitimate exercise of power by a [[state (law)|state]]. ''[[De jure]]'' sovereignty is the legal right to do so; ''[[de facto]]'' sovereignty is the ability in fact to do so (which becomes of special concern upon the failure of the usual expectation that de jure and de facto sovereignty exist at the place and time of concern, and rest in the same organization). Foreign governments ''recognize'' the sovereignty of a state over a territory, or refuse to do so.
For instance, in theory, both the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] considered themselves sovereign governments over the whole territory of [[mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]]. Though some foreign governments recognize the Republic of China as the valid state, most now recognize the People's Republic of China. However, de facto, the People's Republic of China exercises sovereign power over mainland China but not Taiwan, while the Republic of China exercises its effective administration only over Taiwan and some outlying islands but not mainland China. Since [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]]s are only exchanged between sovereign high parties, the countries recognizing the People's Republic often entertain de facto but not de jure diplomatic relationships with Taiwan by maintaining 'offices of representation', such as the [[American Institute in Taiwan]], rather than embassies there.
The autonomous province of [[Kosovo]] in [[Serbia]] provides a somewhat similar example, where the government of Serbia remains the de jure sovereign power but the [[United Nations]] has exercised de facto control since [[1999]]. The province is still recognized as part of Serbia, though the Serbian government has no practical authority on the ground.
Sovereignty may be recognized even when the sovereign body possesses no territory or its territory is under partial or total occupation by another power. The [[Holy See]] was in this position between the annexation in [[1870]] of the [[Papal States]] by Italy and the signing of the [[Lateran Treaties]] in [[1929]], when it was recognised as sovereign by many (mostly [[Roman Catholic]]) states despite possessing no territory – a situation resolved when the Lateran Treaties granted the Holy See sovereignty over the [[Vatican City]]. The [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]] is likewise a non-territorial body that claims to be a sovereign entity, though it is not universally recognized as such.
Similarly, the governments-in-exile of many European states (for instance, [[Norway]] and the [[Netherlands]]) during the [[Second World War]] were regarded as sovereign despite their territories being under foreign occupation; their governance resumed as soon as the occupation had ended. The government of [[Kuwait]] was in a similar situation ''vis-á-vis'' the [[Iraq]]i occupation of its country during [[1990]]-[[1991]].
==Sovereignty and federalism==
In [[Federal republic|federal]] [[System of government|systems of government]], such as that of the [[United States]], ''sovereignty'' also refers to powers which a state government possesses independently of the federal government; this is called "clipped sovereignty."
The question whether the individual states, particularly the so-called 'Confederate States' of the American Union remained sovereign became a matter of debate in the USA, especially in its first century of existence:
* According to the theory of [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], the states had entered into an agreement from which they might withdraw if other parties broke the terms of agreement, and they remained sovereign. These individuals contributed to the theoretical basis for acts of [[secession]], as occurred just before the [[American Civil War]]. However, they propounded this as part of a general theory of "[[nullification]]," in which a state had the right to refuse to accept any Federal law that it found to be unconstitutional, regardless of [[judicial review]].
Likewise, according to the theory put forth by James Madison in the [[Federalist Papers]] "each State, in ratifying the Constitution, was to be considered as a sovereign body, independent of all others, and only to be bound by its own voluntary act. In this relation, then, the new Constitution [was to be] a federal, and not a national constitution." In the end, Madison likewise compromised with the [[Anti-federalists]] to modify the Constitution to protect state sovereignty: At the 1787 constitutional convention a proposal was made to allow the federal government to suppress a seceding state. James Madison rejected it saying, "A Union of the States containing such an ingredient seemed to provide for its own destruction. The use of force against a State would look more like a declaration of war than an infliction of punishment and would probably be considered by the party attacked as a dissolution of all previous compacts by which it might be bound."
In his Report on the Virginia Resolutions, James Madison wrote that "The states, then, being the parties to the constitutional compact, and in their sovereign capacity, it follows of necessity that there can be no tribunal, above their authority, to decide, in the last resort, whether the compact made by them be violated; and consequently, that, as the parties to it, they must themselves decide, in the last resort, such questions as may be of sufficient magnitude to require their interposition.” Madison even made a dire prediction of what would happen if this was denied, stating that “If the deliberate exercise of dangerous powers, palpably withheld by the Constitution, could not justify the parties to it in interposing even so far as to arrest the progress of the evil, and thereby to preserve the Constitution itself, as well as to provide for the safety of the parties to it, there would be an end to all relief from usurped power, and a direct subversion of the rights specified or recognized under all the state constitutions, as well as a plain denial of the fundamental principle on which our independence itself was declared."
During the first half-century after the Constitution was ratified, the right of secession was asserted on several occasions, and various states considered secession (including, for example, the [[New England]] states during the [[War of 1812]]; in response, not a single state objected on the grounds that such was unlawful. It was not until later, c. 1830, that [[Andrew Jackson]], [[Joseph Story]], [[Daniel Webster]] and others began to publish the arbitrary theory that secession was illegal, and that the United States was a supremely sovereign nation over the various member-states. These writers inspired [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s later declaration that "no state may lawfully get out of the Union by its own mere motion", based on the premise that "the Union is older than the Constitution or the even states," conflating all prior unions with the constitutional union; however in reality the states, in forming the Union of which he spoke, had each ''seceded'' from the prior Confederated union of 1781, to form that constitutional union between nine of the states on June 21, 1788; however four states refused until various conditions were met--- including the addition of the [[Bill of Rights]]--, and so both unions continued to exist ''in perpetuity'' after that, until the final states of North Carolina and Rhode Island likewise joined the Constitutional union over a year afterward-- thus ''ending'' the original confederated union.
==Miscellaneous==
* [[Tribal sovereignty]] refers to the right of [[tribe]]s or of federally recognized [[Native Americans in the United State|Native American]] nations to exercise limited jurisdiction within and sometimes beyond [[Indian reservation|reservation]] boundaries.
* In some regions of the world, such as [[Quebec]] and Indian [[Kashmir]], the word "sovereignty" has become the preferred synonym for national [[independence]] (referring in this case to "national sovereignty" or the right of national [[self-determination]], as explicited by example in [[Woodrow Wilson|US President Wilson]]'s ''[[Fourteen Points]]'' - 1918). Compare the [[Māori]] term [[rangatiratanga]], and the concept of [[self-determination]].
* The [[Holy See]] is recognized as sovereign subject under international law (separate entity in international law vis-à-vis [[Vatican City]], which has a very small amount of territory enclaved in the Italian capital Rome).
* A case ''[[sui generis]]'', though often contested, is the [[Sovereign Military Order of Malta]], the third sovereign mini-state based in an enclave in the Italian capital (since in 1869 the Palazzo di Malta and the Villa Malta receive [[extraterritorial]] rights, in this way becoming the only "sovereign" territorial possessions of the modern Order), which is the last existing heir to one of several once militarily significant, [[crusader state]]s of sovereign [[military order]]s; in 1607 its Grand masters were also made by the Holy Roman Emperor [[Reichsfürst]] ('prince of the Holy Roman Empire', granting a seat in the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] or Imperial Diet, at the time the closest permanent equivalent to a UN-type general assembly; confirmed 1620), the sovereign rights never deposed, only the territories lost; several modern states still maintain full diplomatic relations (94) with the order (now de facto 'the most prestigious service club'), and the UN awarded it observer status.
* Just like the office of [[Head of state]] (whether sovereignty is vested in it or not) can be vested jointly in several persons within a state, the sovereign jurisdiction over a single political territory can be shared jointly by two or more consenting powers, notably in the forms of a [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]] or of (as still in [[Andorra]]) a [[co-principality]]
* [[Thomas Hobbes]] wrote that Sovereignty was the very soul of the Leviathan.
* The theological system [[Calvinism]] asserts that [[God]] is sovereign in all things, including [[salvation]].
An underdeveloped aspect of sovereignty is individual sovereignty meaning the ability of individuals to have effective control over their everyday lives. Individuals have no genuine sovereignty unless they have secure income sufficient to satisfy basic need and rare is the politics or economics, such as [[binary economics]], which consciously upholds individual sovereignty by guaranteeing that income.
==Sovereign as a title==
In some cases, the title sovereign is not just a generic term, but an actual (part of the) formal style of a [[Head of state]].
Thus from 22 June, 1934, to 29 May, 1953, (the title "Emperor of India" was dropped as of 15 August, 1947, by retroactive proclamation dated 22 June, 1948), the [[King of South Africa]] was styled in the [[Dominion]] of [[South Africa]]: "By the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India and ''Sovereign'' in and over the Union of South Africa." Upon the accession of Elizabeth II to the Throne of South Africa in 1952, the title was changed to Queen of South Africa and Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth, parallel to the style used in almost all the other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s.
The adjective form can also be used in a Monarch's full style, as in pre-imperial Russia, 16 January, 1547 - 22 November, 1721: ''Bozhiyeyu Milostiyu Velikiy/Velikaya '''Gosudar'/Gosudarynya''' Tsar'/Tsaritsa i Velikiy/Velikaya Knyaz'/Knyaginya N.N. vseya Rossiy Samodyerzhets'' "By the Grace of God Great '''Sovereign Tsar'''/Tsarina and Grand Prince/Princess, N.N., of All Russia, Autocrat"
==See also==
* ''[[Seigniorage]]'', the sovereign power to issue money
* ''[[Basileus]]''
* [[Rousseau]]'s classic theory of [[popular sovereignty]]
* [[Carl Schmitt]]'s theory of sovereignty as the power to ''decide'' the instauration of the [[state of emergency|state of exception]] (according to [[Giorgio Agamben]], a response to [[Walter Benjamin]]'s theorization of a "pure violence" unrelated with law)
* [[Colonization]]
* [[Constitutive theory of statehood]]
* [[Declarative theory of statehood]]
* [[Dictatorship]]
* [[Divine right of kings]] ([[Jean Bodin|Bodin]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], etc.)
* [[Leadership]]
* [[Montevideo Convention]]
* [[Neo-medievalism]]
* [[Non-Intervention|Non-intervention]]
* [[Plenary authority]]
* [[Puerto Rican Independence Movement]]
* [[Puerto Rican Independence Party]]
* [[Self-determination]]
* [[Self-ownership]]
* [[Social contract]] theories (Hobbes, [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]])
* [[State]]
* [[Suzerainty]]
* [[Parliamentary sovereignty]]
* [[Popular sovereignty]]
* [[Sovereigntist]]
* [[Westphalian sovereignty]]
==References==
* [http://www.law.ufl.edu/faculty/publications/pdf/sov.pdf The Changing Character of Sovereignty in International Law and International Relations] by Winston P. Nagan and Craig Hammer of the Levine College of Law, University of Florida
* [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=sovereign&searchmode=none Etymology OnLine]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sovereignty/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=990885 The Extinction of Nation-States]
* [http://kennedy.byu.edu/partners/WFPC/alrfouh.html Protection of national sovereign rights under international law]
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen]
* ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2882397.stm Catalan bid for 'sovereignty']'', BBC NEWS
==External links==
*[http://www.burneylawfirm.com/international_law_primer.htm A Brief Primer on International Law]
*[http://www.un.org Official United Nations website]
*[http://www.un.org/law Official UN website on International Law]
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/ Official website of the International Court of Justice]
[[Category: General Reference]]
